“…The integration of machine learning into virtual sensing not only enables the estimation of unmeasured variables, but also empowers decision-making processes in various sectors, such as healthcare, manufacturing, and environmental monitoring, resulting in a significant transformation in how we address sensing limitations [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]; - In the deterministic approach, the physical or chemical connections between input and output variables are leveraged to calculate the unmeasured variable through a virtual sensor [ 13 ]. Usually, virtual sensing based on the deterministic approach is performed using methodologies based on the Kalman filter due to its ability to combine available data with system dynamics to estimate unmeasured variables [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Its widespread application across various sectors such as autonomous systems, finance, and environmental monitoring highlights its significance in addressing complex problems where direct measurements are unattainable.
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