Abstract. This study was designed to investigate the role of protein kinase C (PKC) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) signaling in tamoxifen (TAM)-induced apoptosis and drug resistance in human breast cancer cells. Drug-sensitive, or estrogen receptor (ER)-positive human breast carcinoma cells (MCF-7) and the multi-drug-resistant variant (ER-negative) MCF-7/ADR cells were treated with doses of TAM for various periods of time. Cell viability and apoptosis were assessed using cell counting, DNA fragmentation and flow cytometric analysis. We found that TAM administration caused a significant increase in apoptosis of MCF-7 cells but not MCF-7/ADR cells. Western blot analysis revealed enhanced expression of PKCδ but decreased expression of PKCα in ER-positive MCF-7 cells; while ER-negative MCF-7/ADR cells had decreased levels of PKCδ and increased levels of PKCα. Interestingly, we observed that in MCF-7 cells, TAM stimulated apoptosis by promoting rapid activation of PKCδ, antagonizing downstream signaling of ERK phosphorylation; while in MCF-7/ADR cells, TAM upregulated PKCα, which promoted ERK phosphorylation. These results suggest that PKCδ enhances apoptosis in TAM-treated MCF-7 cells by antagonizing ERK phosphorylation; while the PKCα pathway plays an important role in TAM-induced drug resistance by activating ERK signaling in MCF-7/ADR cells. The combination of TAM with PKCα and ERK inhibitors could promote TAM-induced apoptosis in breast cancer cells.
IntroductionBreast cancer is a common malignancy in females and the second cause of death from cancer in women today (1). Treatment for breast cancer includes surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and endocrine therapy. Tamoxifen (TAM), an antagonist of the estrogen receptor (ER), is a selective ER modulator (SERM). TAM is a front-line endocrine therapeutic drug for ER-positive breast cancers. Results from TAM therapy showed a 40-50% reduction in the risk of cancer recurrence and cancer mortality (2). Recently, TAM has been demonstrated to be effective for some ER-negative breast cancers, as well as other types of cancers, including gliomas. These data suggest that TAM may also be implicated in ER-independent antitumor mechanisms (3,4). Of note, some advanced breast cancers that initially respond well to TAM eventually become refractory to treatment (5-9). Thus, the traditional mechanism of TAM action through the ER is challenged, and other noncanonical pathways need to be explored.Protein kinase C (PKC), a family of serine/threonine kinases, is involved in many important cellular functions, including cell proliferation, migration, differentiation, and apoptosis (10-12). Twelve PKC isoforms have been discovered in various cell types, including conventional PKCs (cPKCα, βI/βII and γ), novel PKCs (nPKCδ, ε, η), and atypical PKCs (aPKCζ) (13,14). The expression of PKCα, δ, ε, η, γ, μ, and ζ has been detected in MCF-7 cells (15,16); PKCα is a marker for anti-estrogen resistance and is involved in the growth of TAM-resistant human breast cancer cell...