Achievement at whose expense? A literature review of test-based grade retention policies in U.S. school

Abstract

Abstract:The author uses Maxwell's method of literature reviews for educational research to focus on literature relevant to test-based grade retention policies to make the following argument: although some studies have documented average gains in academic achievement through test-based grade retention, there is increasing evidence that these gains have occurred by limiting the educational opportunities for the most vulnerable of students. The author begins by briefly synthesizing research on high-stakes testing policies and teacher-based retention in general and then examines studies that have evaluated specific test-based retention policies in Chicago,

Representing teachers as criminals in the news: a multimodal critical discourse analysis of the Atlanta schools’ “Cheating Scandal”

“…In the case of Atlanta, the policy mandates of NCLB contributed to the state's decision to link grade promotion to tests. This meant that instead of teacher-based retention where the teacher would decide (based on the student's performance throughout the year and on many assessments) whether or not they were ready for the following grade, the student's standardized test scores would be the sole determinant for promotion (Huddleston 2014). Notably, and in keeping with the magical thinking from which these policies decisions seem to stem, this decision to enact test-based retention in Atlanta Public Schools did not take into account the devastating effects of this very same policy in Chicago and Philadelphia (e.g.…”

The Consequential Validity of the M-STEP and Third-Grade Retention

“…While test-based retention policies date back as far as 1996, the idea has much older roots (Huddleston, 2014). Dee Norman Lloyd's (1978) report "Prediction of School Failure from Third-Grade Data" argues that dropout predictions could be made from test results as early as the third grade.…”

“…For those subpopulations at risk in the disaggregated data, the long-term consequences of retention may be severe (Huddleston, 2014). AERA standards affirm any valid assessment would need to show "that the test is useful in determining which persons are likely to profit differentially from one treatment group or another" (AERA et al, 2014, p. 30).…”

Mapping Educational Equity and Reform Policy in the Borderlands: LatCrit Spatial Analysis of Grade Retention

“…Research reveals grade retention is associated with dropout/push out factors, and the probability increases with grade level (i.e., the higher the grade, the higher the probability) and the number of times the student is retained (Haney, 2000;Valenzuela, 2005). Huddleston (2014) explains that the unintended consequences of test-based grade retention are "most prevalent among ethnic minority and impoverished students" (p. 1). Xia and Kirby (2009) provide a national review of the literature on student grade promotion and retention and report that retention has immediate benefits, but the benefits are short-lived compared to long-term outcomes, which are lower academic achievement, poor self-esteem, and ultimately significant school dropout likelihood.…”