The
storage mechanisms of Li, Na, and K in hard carbon anodes are
investigated through systematically exploring their electrochemical
behaviors. Two charge/discharge voltage regions are observed for all
the Li, Na, and K storage, a slope at a high voltage, and a plateau
in a low-voltage range. Considerably different behaviors are revealed
by the galvanostatic intermittent titration technique and electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy measurements, and accordingly different storage
mechanisms are proposed. The sloping region is mainly attributed to
the adsorption at defects/heteroatoms for all the Li, Na, and K storage.
In the plateau region, pore filling contributes very little to Li
storage but much to Na and K storage. Furthermore, significant effects
of ionic sizes on the storage behavior in hard carbons are revealed
by the electrochemical performance from Li to Na to K. These findings
not only offer a fundamental understanding of storage mechanisms of
alkali metal ions in hard carbons but also help develop and design
innovative electrode materials for low-cost and large-scale energy
storage systems.