Acknowledging Existence of a Fourth Era of Policing: The Information Era

Criminal Intelligence Management System and Security in Kenya: A Case Study of Kirinyaga County

“…It looks at various parts of an organization and how it contributes to the whole organizations greater objectives. (Hooper 2014). According to the theory every organization has some level of similarity with others in the universe regardless of its size or how complicated it operates.…”

Why policing the risk society became a footnote in American police studies: A missed opportunity to move police theorizing forward

“…In a simplified version, the police changed due to the excessive graft and corruption that occurred in 19th-century America (political era), the urban unrest in minority communities caused by police brutality (reform era), which ushered in the period of partnerships (community policing era). Although some have begun to argue for the emergence of a fourth era in policing—information era (Hooper, 2014), Homeland Security era (Kim and de Guzman, 2012; Oliver, 2006)—the proliferation of adjectives in policing represents changes in tactics related to policing, not its theories. A more historically cogent account of police change has been proffered in recent works, in a way that takes into consideration the role of the state (O’Connor and Shon, 2019).…”

“…The accretion of significant anomalies wends in uncertainty, followed by trenchant debates before a new paradigm emerges (Kuhn, 1996). The last 20 years since the publication of PRS may reflect the period of dueling paradigms in police studies, although some have argued that we are in the midst of another era (Hooper, 2014; Kim and de Guzman, 2012; Oliver, 2006). This account, however, is implausible as community policing has been a political and rhetorical success.…”