Acquisition of Multiple Events in Direct Time-of-Flight LiDAR using Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes

Buchner, Andre; Hosticka, B.J.; Schrey, Olaf; Haase, Joachim; Ruskowski, Jennifer; Grabmaier, Anton

doi:10.1109/sensors47125.2020.9278854

Cited by 3 publications

(4 citation statements)

References 1 publication

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“…However, the conventional implementations of these sensors that record a single timestamp per frame [8], originally developed for low-light sparse photon imaging, might not be suitable for application in automotive LiDAR. The analysis of detector and converter dead time, together with advantages of recording multiple events per laser cycle has been previously presented [9], [10]. There are also preventative methods [11], [12] and compensation techniques [13], [14] proposed to reduce the distortions in measurements due to pile-up or converter dead time in high ambient conditions.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A High-Throughput Photon Processing Technique for Range Extension of SPAD-Based LiDAR Receivers

Patanwala

Gyöngy

Mai

et al. 2022

IEEE Open J. Solid-State Circuits Soc.

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There has recently been a keen interest in developing Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) systems using Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) sensors. This has led to a variety of implementations in pixel combining techniques and Time to Digital Converter (TDC) architectures for such sensors. This paper presents a comparison of these approaches and demonstrates a technique capable of extending the range of LiDAR systems with improved resilience to background conditions. A LiDAR system emulator using a reconfigurable SPAD array and FPGA interface is used to compare these different techniques. A Monte Carlo simulation model leveraging synthetic 3D data is presented to visualize the sensor performance on realistic automotive LiDAR scenes. INDEX TERMS Light detection and ranging (LiDAR), macro-pixel, Monte Carlo simulation, single photon avalanche diode (SPAD), synthetic 3D data, time-of-flight (ToF), time to digital converter (TDC).

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A High-Throughput Photon Processing Technique for Range Extension of SPAD-Based LiDAR Receivers

Patanwala

Gyöngy

Mai

et al. 2022

IEEE Open J. Solid-State Circuits Soc.

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“…Various research groups have compared the performance of APD-and SPAD-based optical detection systems and also derived SNR definitions for both APDs and SPADs. The authors of [1] derive an SNR definition for SPADs in single-or multi-event [2,3] acquisition mode which is the basis for this work. An extension of this definition is given by [4] representing afterpulsing effects in gated SPADs, which are assumed to be negligible in this work through the use of a sufficiently long dead time.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Analytical Evaluation of Signal-to-Noise Ratios for Avalanche- and Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes

Buchner

Hadrath

Burkard

et al. 2021

Sensors

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Performance of systems for optical detection depends on the choice of the right detector for the right application. Designers of optical systems for ranging applications can choose from a variety of highly sensitive photodetectors, of which the two most prominent ones are linear mode avalanche photodiodes (LM-APDs or APDs) and Geiger-mode APDs or single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs). Both achieve high responsivity and fast optical response, while maintaining low noise characteristics, which is crucial in low-light applications such as fluorescence lifetime measurements or high intensity measurements, for example, Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), in outdoor scenarios. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of detectors is used as an analytical, scenario-dependent tool to simplify detector choice for optical system designers depending on technologically achievable photodiode parameters. In this article, analytical methods are used to obtain a universal SNR comparison of APDs and SPADs for the first time. Different signal and ambient light power levels are evaluated. The low noise characteristic of a typical SPAD leads to high SNR in scenarios with overall low signal power, but high background illumination can saturate the detector. LM-APDs achieve higher SNR in systems with higher signal and noise power but compromise signals with low power because of the noise characteristic of the diode and its readout electronics. Besides pure differentiation of signal levels without time information, ranging performance in LiDAR with time-dependent signals is discussed for a reference distance of 100 m. This evaluation should support LiDAR system designers in choosing a matching photodiode and allows for further discussion regarding future technological development and multi pixel detector designs in a common framework.

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“…Donati, et al [5] developed a theoretical framework to evaluate the precision of ToF measurements by analyzing the timing errors in APD-and SPAD-based receivers. Buchner, et al [6] analyzed the distribution of higherorder photon detections in SPADs. The theoretical model was validated in a LiDAR system with a SPAD circuit that could detect multiple photons in a single measurement under high background noise power.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The nonlinearity of opto-electrical devices, such as APDs and SPADs, is an issue in the conventional pulsed-ToF model [6], [22]. However, the prospect of triggering unwanted nonlinearity in the APDs, which are the main opto-electrical devices in the proposed 2-D CDMA modulation model with hard-limiting, is much reduced.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

2-D Optical-CDMA Modulation With Hard-Limiting for Automotive Time-of-Flight LiDAR

Yang

Lin

et al. 2021

IEEE Photonics J.

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In this proof-of-principle paper, the application of 2-D optical code-division multiple-access (OCDMA) modulation to long-range automotive time-of-flight (ToF) light detection and ranging (LiDAR) is studied. The regulations and physical constraints that govern the design parameters are reviewed. Using 2-D carrier-hopping prime codes (CHPCs), the modulation model and a novel 2-D hard-limiting decoder are designed and validated with OptiSystem TM simulations. Based on the design parameters, the 2-D CHPCs have six times as many distinct sequences (for sensor identification) as 1-D code sequences. Analytical and simulation studies show that the proposed 2-D OCDMA modulation model can eliminate the near-far (power) problem and support more LiDAR sensors with distinctive ToF tags, greater interference robustness for more simultaneous ToF measurements, and better performance than the 1-D counterparts. The simulation results show that the 2-D model can support four times as many simultaneous emitting sensors without false detections as the 1-D model. In summary, the 2-D OCDMA modulation has more benefits and is more cost efficient overall, even though it is more complex.

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Acquisition of Multiple Events in Direct Time-of-Flight LiDAR using Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes

Cited by 3 publications

References 1 publication

A High-Throughput Photon Processing Technique for Range Extension of SPAD-Based LiDAR Receivers

A High-Throughput Photon Processing Technique for Range Extension of SPAD-Based LiDAR Receivers

Analytical Evaluation of Signal-to-Noise Ratios for Avalanche- and Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes

2-D Optical-CDMA Modulation With Hard-Limiting for Automotive Time-of-Flight LiDAR

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