Adaptive Metabolism in Staphylococci: Survival and Persistence in Environmental and Clinical Settings

Abstract

Staphylococci are highly successful at colonizing a variety of dynamic environments, both nonpathogenic and those of clinical importance, and comprise the list of pathogens of global public health significance. Their remarkable survival and persistence can be attributed to a host of strategies, one of which is metabolic versatility—their ability to rapidly alter their metabolism in the presence of transient or long-term bacteriostatic and bactericidal conditions and facilitate cellular homeostasis. These attributes contribute to their widespread dissemination and challenging eradication particularly from clinical settings. The study of microbial behaviour at the metabolite level provides insight into mechanisms of survival and persistence under defined environmental and clinical conditions. This paper reviews the range of metabolic modulations that facilitate staphylococcal acclimatization and persistence in varying terrestrial and host conditions, and their public health ramifications in these settings.

Transporters and Efflux Pumps Are the Main Mechanisms Involved in Staphylococcus epidermidis Adaptation and Tolerance to Didecyldimethylammonium Chloride

“…A reduction in these peptidoglycan linkages results in greater elasticity of the S. aureus cell wall [59]. Alanine racemase has also been related to enterococci resistance against vancomycin, an antibiotic that targets the cell wall [18]. Modification of the peptidoglycan and bacterial cell wall are highly regulated mechanisms, and these can occur as responses to different environmental stimuli, with the basic aim being to protect the inner content of cells [16,48].…”

“…Modification of the peptidoglycan and bacterial cell wall are highly regulated mechanisms, and these can occur as responses to different environmental stimuli, with the basic aim being to protect the inner content of cells [16,48]. Such cell-membrane and cell-wall modifications usually result in thickening of the staphylococcal cell wall as a resistance mechanism, to help protect the cell against antimicrobials [18]. Other genes involved in amino-acid biosynthetic pathways were down-regulated, including (SE0275, -7-fold); this gene encodes 1-(5-phosphoribosyl)-5-[(5-phosphoribosylamino) methylideneamino] imidazole-4-carboxamide isomerase, which is involved in L-histidine biosynthesis.…”

“…Modifications to cell membranes and the cell wall are known to be important to maintain cellular homeostasis, by the protection of cells from changes in the environment. This is achieved by maintenance of cell shape and turgor pressure, and is involved in cell division, energy production and permeability regulation [18]. Table 3.…”

“…We suggest that up−regulation of the tcyB gene that is involved in the uptake of L−cysteine is an important adaptation and tolerance mechanism for maintenance of cellular homeostasis in both SE11Ad and SE18To. These cells have greater need for L−cysteine to form low−molecular−weight thiols, and uptake of L−cysteine from the environment is preferred over de−novo synthesis [18,81].…”

“…Here, tolerance remains even after the removal of the disinfectant, and it can be transferred across generations [16]. Several bacterial adaptation and tolerance mechanisms are known to be involved, such as modulation of cell growth rate, biofilm formation, efflux pump activity, fatty-acid profile, and the cell size, cell membranes and cell wall [16][17][18][19]. However, in general, tolerance development to QACs is still not fully understood [13].…”