Adipokines and Inflammation: Focus on Cardiovascular Diseases

Abstract

It is well established that adipose tissue, apart from its energy storage function, acts as an endocrine organ that produces and secretes a number of bioactive substances, including hormones commonly known as adipokines. Obesity is a major risk factor for the development of cardiovascular diseases, mainly due to a low grade of inflammation and the excessive fat accumulation produced in this state. The adipose tissue dysfunction in obesity leads to an aberrant release of adipokines, some of them with direct cardiovascular and inflammatory regulatory functions. Inflammation is a common link between obesity and cardiovascular diseases, so this review will summarise the role of the main adipokines implicated in the regulation of the inflammatory processes occurring under the scenario of cardiovascular diseases.

Cardiac Connexin-43 Hemichannels and Pannexin1 Channels: Provocative Antiarrhythmic Targets

“…There are three main factors involved in the development of severe arrhythmias: arrhythmogenic substrates, triggers, and modulating elements [ 3 ]. Arrhythmogenic substrates, i.e., myocardial structural remodeling and ion channel dysfunction in the setting of inflammation and oxidative stress facilitate the occurrence of both VF and AF [ 2 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Abnormal calcium handling and/or high intracellular calcium, acidosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress (mostly ischemia-related) may act as triggers [ 9 ], while alterations in autonomic tone are the modulating elements [ 10 , 11 ].…”

Adiponectin in Cerebrospinal Fluid from Patients Affected by Multiple Sclerosis Is Correlated with the Progression and Severity of Disease

“…In this context, adipose tissue, through dysregulated secretion of adipokines, plays a pivotal role in the development and establishment of several inflammation-related processes [8,9]. Adipokines have been proposed as the molecular link between adipose tissue and other organs/tissues involved in inflammatory-immunologic activation, including the CNS [10][11][12]. Among the adipokines, adiponectin is a relevant serum adipokine with protective effects against a variety of pathophysiological conditions, especially metabolic diseases [13,14].…”

Melanoma Progression under Obesity: Focus on Adipokines

“…Resistin is a circulating hormone firstly identified as being secreted in vivo by WAT [ 78 ]. However, it is expressed predominantly in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and macrophages, and minimally in preadipocytes and adipocytes [ 3 , 55 ].…”

“…They are: toll-like receptor 4 in human myeloid and epithelial cells; adenylyl cyclase-associated protein 1 in human monocytes [ 80 ]; and WAT-specific-glycated isoform of decorin [ 141 ]. This adipokine was described primarily as affecting glucose metabolism in a manner antagonistic to insulin [ 78 ], and mainly links insulin resistance, obesity, and inflammation [ 142 , 143 ]. In addition, a higher level of this hormone in serum, SAT, and VAT was noticed compared to those with a normal weight [ 56 , 79 ].…”

“…Nesfatin-1 was firstly detected as being secreted from the hypothalamic nuclei as a factor responsible for controlling appetite [ 78 ]. Nesfatin-1 is an 82-amino acid derivative of the N-terminal of nucleobindin 2 (NUCB2), which is also a protein precursor of nesfatin-2 and -3, two peptides with so-far unknown functions [ 64 ].…”