Adjustment and maladjustment to later life: Evidence about early experiences in the family

Abstract

IntroductionPrevious parenting studies with European-American families have identified optimal parenting as being based on warmth combined with strictness (i.e., authoritative parenting). The present study analyzes, in adolescents and adults, their adjustment and maladjustment related to age and their early experiences in the family.MethodsThe sample consisted of 2,158 Spanish people (58.29% women): 624 adolescents, 630 young adults, 504 middle-aged adults, and 400 older adults. The families were classified into one of the four parental typologies (authoritative, indulgent, authoritarian, and neglectful) based on their scores in the two main dimensions (warmth and strictness). Child functioning was measured as components of adjustment (self-esteem, emotional self-concept, and empathy) and maladjustment (aggression and hostile sexism).ResultsOverall, only adolescents and adult children raised in indulgent families reported the highest self-esteem, emotional self-concept, and empathy, and the lowest aggression and hostile sexism. Authoritative parenting (warmth with strictness) was related to a lower emotional self-concept and greater aggression and hostile sexism than indulgent parenting (warmth without strictness). The worst scores corresponded to authoritarian and neglectful parenting.DiscussionThe present findings provide new evidence about early experiences in the family, even after parental socialization has ended. Interestingly, contrary to the main findings from classic studies with European-American families, only high parental warmth combined with low parental strictness (i.e., indulgent parenting) is always positive for greater adjustment and less maladjustment in all age groups.

Early Family Experiences, Drug Use, and Psychosocial Adjustment across the Life Span: Is Parental Strictness Always a Protective Factor?

“…Young adults were recruited from university courses ( Candel, 2022 ; Manzeske & Stright, 2009 ). Middle-aged adults came from city council neighborhoods ( Alcaide et al, 2023 ; Climent-Galarza et al, 2022 ). Older adults were recruited using a complete list of senior citizen centers.…”

“…Additionally, some recent research from studies mostly conducted in European and Latin American countries indicate that the indulgent parenting is related to equal or even more optimal scores compared to the authoritative parenting, whereas authoritarian and neglectful parenting tend to be related to the lowest optimal scores ( Alcaide et al, 2023 ; Calafat et al, 2014 ; Garcia et al, 2019 ; Martinez et al, 2020 ; Perez-Gramaje et al, 2020 ; Reyes et al, 2023 ). Overall, parental warmth might offer broad benefits ( Lila et al, 2007 ; Martinez-Escudero et al, 2023 ), while parental strictness seems to be unnecessary or even detrimental ( Climent-Galarza et al, 2022 ; Martinez et al, 2019 ).…”

“…Parents can no longer use parental practices with their adult children (e.g., monitoring or behavioral control). Adults throughout their lives face different challenges, such as university studies and job search (mainly in young adulthood), consolidation of professional career and family life (in middle age) and retirement and perhaps grandparenthood (later life) ( Alcaide et al, 2023 ). Far from some problems that may arise during adolescence being reduced upon reaching adulthood, findings suggest that they seem to continue.…”

Parental Socialization and Adjustment Components in Adolescents and Middle-Aged Adults: How are They Related?

“…116 Current interventions may not be effective, at least in the European context, where, according to some emerging research, children benefit especially when they have relationships with their parents based on love, affection, and dialogue, but not on strict parenting practices. 117,118 Interestingly, most interventions with families in professional practice are with adolescent children, partly because that is when they are likely to have the most problems. 119 However, even after the socialization years, in adulthood there is also a relationship between adjustment and maladjustment with the type of family socialization.…”

Parent-child attachment mediates the association between parental conflict perceptions and suicide intention: a cross-sectional survey among middle school students in China

“…However, parental concern or indifference at this time may be a protective or risk factor for adolescent problems ( 18 , 20 ). Some studies have shown that parental responses to adolescents (affection, involvement, and trust) appear to have positive implications for the development of adolescent psychological autonomy and the prevention of deviant behavior ( 21 , 22 ). A study in the United States showed that parents who are responsive to their children's needs allow their children to bond with them and feel loved by their family ( 23 – 25 ).…”