Advances in Anti-Cancer Immunotherapy: Car-T Cell, Checkpoint Inhibitors, Dendritic Cell Vaccines, and Oncolytic Viruses, and Emerging Cellular and Molecular Targets

Abstract

<jats:p>Unlike traditional cancer therapies, such as surgery, radiation and chemotherapy that are typically non-specific, cancer immunotherapy harnesses the high specificity of a patient’s own immune system to selectively kill cancer cells. The immune system is the body’s main cancer surveillance system, but cancers may evade destruction thanks to various immune-suppressing mechanisms. We therefore need to deploy various immunotherapy-based strategies to help bolster the anti-tumour immune responses. These include engineering T cells to express chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) to specifically recognise tumour neoantigens, inactivating immune checkpoints, oncolytic viruses and dendritic cell (DC) vaccines, which have all shown clinical benefit in certain cancers. However, treatment efficacy remains poor due to drug-induced adverse events and immunosuppressive tendencies of the tumour microenvironment. Recent preclinical studies have unveiled novel therapies such as anti-cathepsin antibodies, galectin-1 blockade and anti-OX40 agonistic antibodies, which may be utilised as adjuvant therapies to modulate the tumour microenvironment and permit more ferocious anti-tumour immune response.</jats:p>

Immune Checkpoint Blockade in Gynecologic Cancers: State of Affairs

“…However, co-inhibitory molecule CTLA-4 on T cells has a higher affinity for B7-1/B7-2 molecules than does CD28, and the preferential binding of CTLA-4 to B7-1/B7-2 blocks IL-2 release from T cells and limits T cell proliferation. In cancer, the development of an antibody to block the CTLA-4 to B7-1/B7-2 ligation leads to potent anti-tumor responses [13][14][15][16]. The first such CTLA-4 blocking antibody, ipilimumab, was FDA approved for metastatic melanoma in 2011 [12,17,18].…”

“…CTLA-4 to B7-1/B7-2 ligation leads to potent anti-tumor responses [13][14][15][16]. The first such CTLA-4 blocking antibody, ipilimumab, was FDA approved for metastatic melanoma in 2011 [12,17,18].…”

Mesenchymal stem cell carriers enhance anti‑tumor efficacy of oncolytic virotherapy (Review)

“…( 1 ) MSCs loaded with OVs. ( 2 ) MSCs provide a replication locale for OVs to produce more virus particles. ( 3 ) Tumor tropisms and immunosuppressive MSC functions facilitate precise OV targeting to tumor lesions.…”

“…However, the overall remission and survival rate of patients with certain tumors has not been fundamentally addressed. In recent decades, oncolytic viruses (OVs) have generated widespread interest, and have become a major focus of interest for clinicians and scientists ( 2 , 3 ). These viruses include adenovirus, measles virus, reovirus, herpes simplex virus, Newcastle disease virus, vesicular stomatitis, vaccinia virus and poliovirus ( 4 , 5 ).…”

Incidence, mortality, and risk factors of immunotherapy-associated hepatotoxicity: A nationwide hospitalization analysis

“…Anti-neoplastic immunotherapy consists of monoclonal antibodies that target immune checkpoints inhibitors thus stimulating the natural T-cell mediated immune response. 1 Acting as cellular checkpoint inhibitors, they augment the body’s response against cancer. 2 Taken together, they have revolutionized the treatment of cancer owing to their ability to improve overall survival in a wide variety of cancers, even after treatment failure with conventional cytotoxic chemotherapy.…”