Advances in biological functions and applications of apoptotic vesicles

Abstract

Background Apoptotic vesicles are extracellular vesicles generated by apoptotic cells that were previously regarded as containing waste or harmful substances but are now thought to play an important role in signal transduction and homeostasis regulation. Methods In the present review, we reviewed many articles published over the past decades on the subtypes and formation of apoptotic vesicles and the existing applications of these vesicles. Results Apoptotic bodies were once regarded as vesicles released by apoptotic cells, however, apoptotic vesicles are now regarded to include apoptotic bodies, apoptotic microvesicles and apoptotic exosomes, which exhibit variation in terms of biogenesis, sizes and properties. Applications of apoptotic vesicles were first reported long ago, but such reports have been rarer than those of other extracellular vesicles. At present, apoptotic vesicles have been utilized mainly in four aspects, including in direct therapeutic applications, in their engineering as carriers, in their construction as vaccines and in their utilization in diagnosis. Conclusion Building on a deeper understanding of their composition and characteristics, some studies have utilized apoptotic vesicles to treat diseases in more novel ways. However, their limitations for clinical translation, such as heterogeneity, have also emerged. In general, apoptotic vesicles have great application potential, but there are still many barriers to overcome in their investigation.

Extracellular Vesicles and Hydrogels: An Innovative Approach to Tissue Regeneration

“…As a result, it is common to observe increased concentrations of nuclear proteins (such as histones), mitochondrial proteins (like HSP60), Golgi apparatus proteins, and endoplasmic reticulum proteins (for instance, GRP78) in apoptotic bodies. Furthermore, the proteomic composition of apoptotic bodies closely resembles that of cell lysate, in stark contrast to the notable disparities observed between the proteomic compositions of exosomes and cell lysate …”

“…Furthermore, the proteomic composition of apoptotic bodies closely resembles that of cell lysate, in stark contrast to the notable disparities observed between the proteomic compositions of exosomes and cell lysate. 74 2.4. Methods for Characterization of EVs.…”

Extracellular vesicles in non-small cell lung cancer stemness and clinical applications

“…MV formation and release is mediated by an ARF6/ PLD/ERK/MLCK axis and RHOA-dependent rearrangement of the actin cytoskeleton for plasma membrane germination (75, 76). Lastly, apoptotic bodies are formed in the process of apoptosis, and may contain nuclear, protein, and even organelle components from apoptotic cells (77). Since there can be an overlap in size between subtypes of EVs and there is no consensus yet on the markers assigned to specific EV subtypes based on their biogenesis, the Minimal Information for Studies of Extracellular Vesicles (MISEV) instead recommends using more general terms to describe EVs based on the size of particles such as small EVs (sEVs; <100-200nm) and medium/ large EVs (m/lEVs; >200nm) (72).…”

Exosomes in asthma: Underappreciated contributors to the pathogenesis and novel therapeutic tools

“…They can transfer biomolecular cargo like proteins, RNA, and DNA to recipient cells. ApoBDs are involved in embryonic development, immune regulation, and pathological conditions like cancer progression 41,42 …”