Advances in three‐dimensional bioprinting of bone: Progress and challenges

Abstract

Several attempts have been made to engineer a viable three‐dimensional (3D) bone tissue equivalent using conventional tissue engineering strategies, but with limited clinical success. Using 3D bioprinting technology, scientists have developed functional prototypes of clinically relevant and mechanically robust bone with a functional bone marrow. Although the field is in its infancy, it has shown immense potential in the field of bone tissue engineering by re‐establishing the 3D dynamic micro‐environment of the native bone. Inspite of their in vitro success, maintaining the viability and differentiation potential of such cell‐laden constructs overtime, and their subsequent preclinical testing in terms of stability, mechanical loading, immune responses, and osseointegrative potential still needs to be explored. Progress is slow due to several challenges such as but not limited to the choice of ink used for cell encapsulation, optimal cell source, bioprinting method suitable for replicating the heterogeneous tissues and organs, and so on. Here, we summarize the recent advancements in bioprinting of bone, their limitations, challenges, and strategies for future improvisations. The generated knowledge will provide deep insights on our current understanding of the cellular interactions with the hydrogel matrices and help to unravel new methodologies for facilitating precisely regulated stem cell behaviour.

3D Printing of Polycaprolactone–Polyaniline Electroactive Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering

“…By contrast, 3D printing enables the precise control of scaffold morphology with the production of interconnected structures and a regular pore size [12][13][14]. 3D printing has been utilised in a range of tissue engineering applications such as cartilage [47], bone [48], vasculature [49], and nerve [50] and facilitates the fabrication of multimaterial and geometrical complex architectures that more accurately reflects that native in vivo environment [51].…”

Rapid Fabrication of Anatomically-Shaped Bone Scaffolds Using Indirect 3D Printing and Perfusion Techniques

“…Other polymers without acid release and the release profiles of calcium and phosphorus ions from the scaffold should be investigated. Translation of this 3D P&P technology into the clinical realm, like any other translational tissue engineering technologies, must consider manufacturing, regulatory compliance, hospital procurement, and reimbursement [43,44].…”

Calvarial Versus Long Bone: Implications for Tailoring Skeletal Tissue Engineering

“…To enhance tissue regeneration, 3D printed scaffolds may also include bioprinted cells and growth factors. 131 Beyond applications for creating scaffolds, 3D printing is clinically useful for creating patient-specific anatomic models for surgical preplanning and patient education/ counseling 132 as well as fabricating custom surgical guides. These surgical guides can be manufactured so that they fit a patient's specific anatomy such as skull curvature, providing fiduciary marks that allow surgeons to quickly gain access to the operating field.…”