Advancing the 3Rs: innovation, implementation, ethics and society

Abstract

The 3Rs principle of replacing, reducing and refining the use of animals in science has been gaining widespread support in the international research community and appears in transnational legislation such as the European Directive 2010/63/EU, a number of national legislative frameworks like in Switzerland and the UK, and other rules and guidance in place in countries around the world. At the same time, progress in technical and biomedical research, along with the changing status of animals in many societies, challenges the view of the 3Rs principle as a sufficient and effective approach to the moral challenges set by animal use in research. Given this growing awareness of our moral responsibilities to animals, the aim of this paper is to address the question: Can the 3Rs, as a policy instrument for science and research, still guide the morally acceptable use of animals for scientific purposes, and if so, how? The fact that the increased availability of alternatives to animal models has not correlated inversely with a decrease in the number of animals used in research has led to public and political calls for more radical action. However, a focus on the simple measure of total animal numbers distracts from the need for a more nuanced understanding of how the 3Rs principle can have a genuine influence as a guiding instrument in research and testing. Hence, we focus on three core dimensions of the 3Rs in contemporary research: (1) What scientific innovations are needed to advance the goals of the 3Rs? (2) What can be done to facilitate the implementation of existing and new 3R methods? (3) Do the 3Rs still offer an adequate ethical framework given the increasing social awareness of animal needs and human moral responsibilities? By answering these questions, we will identify core perspectives in the debate over the advancement of the 3Rs.

Perceptions of 3R implementation in European animal research: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-synthesis of barriers and facilitators

“…When they are asked about their own field of study, researchers do not see replacement as being possible (Q8 from meta-analysis). This is consistent with the conclusions of other commentators and shows the pressing need for more funding and regulatory uptake in replacement methods [ 4 , 13 , 31 , 32 ]. Furthermore, this review shed light on two important levers for 3R implementation: better dissemination of knowledge and the establishment of a culture of care in animal research.…”

“…However, some reports suggest that the worldwide implementation of the 3Rs is not as efficient as it should be, in particular when it comes to promote replacement, and more specifically a goal of full replacement [ 4 , 10 – 12 ]. Many reasons may be invoked such as inoperative policies, inadequate funding, or some forms of inertia in changing research procedures [ 13 ]. As of yet, there is no appraisal of the existing literature to assess the actual impact of each of these reasons on the implementation of the 3Rs from the perspective of the animal research community.…”

Premises for a digital twin of the Atlantic salmon in its world: Agency, robustness, subjectivity and prediction

“…There are increasing governmental and non-governmental efforts for promotion of the '3Rs' (replacement, reduction, refinement) in animal research (Grimm et al, 2023;Russell & Burch, 1959) and also in aquaculture (Eguiraun et al, 2018;Hawkins et al, 2011;Sloman et al, 2019).…”

“…There are increasing governmental and non‐governmental efforts for promotion of the ‘3Rs’ (replacement, reduction, refinement) in animal research (Grimm et al., 2023; Russell & Burch, 1959) and also in aquaculture (Eguiraun et al., 2018; Hawkins et al., 2011; Sloman et al., 2019). More than 80 fish species are used in laboratory research (Mocho & von Krogh, 2022), where the total number of individuals is in the millions annually.…”

Moral distress measurement in animal care workers: a systematic review

“…Moreover, experiencing MD and its negative consequences potentially impacts animal welfare, including the implementation of the 3R principle (replacement, reduction, refinement) in the animal experimental setting with animal care takers being responsible for fostering these 12. An association between poorer quality of life in laboratory animal personnel and limited control over euthanasia procedures was found 10…”