Advantage of Handwriting Over Typing on Learning Words: Evidence From an N400 Event-Related Potential Index

Abstract

The growing implementation of digital education comes with an increased need to understand the impact of digital tools on learning. Previous behavioral studies have shown that handwriting on paper is more effective for learning than typing on a keyboard. However, the impact of writing with a digital pen on a tablet remains to be clarified. In the present study, we compared learning by handwriting with an ink pen on paper, handwriting with a digital pen on a tablet, and typing on a keyboard. Behavioral and electroencephalographic indices were measured immediately after learning with each writing tool. The moods of the subjects during the training were also assessed. The participants were divided according to their use of digital pen in their everyday lives, allowing us to take into account the effect of the familiarity with the digital pen on the learning process (familiar group vs. unfamiliar group). We performed an EEG experiment applying a repetition priming paradigm. In each trial, a learned foreign language word (prime word) and a mother tongue word (target word) were consecutively presented. The target word was either semantically identical to the prime word (repetitive condition) or different (non-repetitive condition). We assumed that a larger priming effect on N400 reflects larger learning progress. The familiar group showed a greater N400 priming effect for words learned with the digital or ink pen than those learned with the keyboard. The unfamiliar group showed the greater N400 priming effect for words learned with the ink pen compared with words learned by typing. In addition, positive mood during learning was significantly higher during handwriting than during typing, regardless of the groups. On the other hand, the behavioral indices were not influenced by the writing tool. These results suggest that the movements involved in handwriting allow a greater memorization of new words. The advantage of handwriting over typing might also be caused by a more positive mood during learning. Finally, our results show that handwriting with a digital pen and tablet can increase the ability to learn compared with keyboard typing once the individuals are accustomed to it.

The role of cognitive individual differences in digital versus pen-and-paper writing

“…In terms of the empirical evidence, numerous studies in neuroscience, experimental psychology, and writing have found differences in learning and performance in the two writing environments. Thus, various studies have found the advantage of pen-and-paper writing over computer writing in improving spelling (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1990) as well as letter and word learning (Ihara et al, 2021;Longcamp et al, 2006). In addition, a recent study by Askvik et al (2020) showed that, as compared to typing, handwriting was associated with increased activation in the brain areas important for memory and learning.…”

“…The effects of environment in writing can be justified from multiple theoretical perspectives, (e.g., Hayes, 2012;Kress, 2003;Mangen & Velay, 2010), and findings from neuroscience (Askvik et al, 2020;Ihara et al, 2021) and writing research (Chan et al, 2017) have shown that the nature of learning and performance can differ depending on whether paper or computer is involved. Surprisingly, however, except for the research on testing (Barkaoui & Knouzi, 2018), the performance environment has been practically ignored in second language acquisition (SLA) research.…”

Pen-and-Paper versus Computer-Mediated Writing Modality as a New Dimension of Task Complexity

“…Evidence on the variations in the mental processes and learning outcomes in different writing modalities also comes from neuroscientific approaches using electroencephalography (EEG; Ihara et al 2021) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI; Vinci-Booher and James 2020). Embodied theories also constitute a common theoretical framework in this line of research (e.g., Askvik et al 2020).…”

“…A recent EEG study by Askvik et al (2020) reported that, as compared to typing, handwriting with digital pen was associated with increased activation in the brain areas important for memory and for encoding of new information. Using the EEG technique, Ihara et al (2021) has found increased word learning by means of handwriting (with either ink or digital pen) as compared to word learning using typing. Additionally, the participants reported more positive mood in the handwriting condition as compared to typing.…”

“…The interesting fact, though, is that the use of the typing machine affected his writing style, leading Nietzsche to acknowledge that "writing equipment takes part in the forming of our thoughts" (cited in "The Shallows" by N. Carr 2010, p. 21). Today, evidence from neuroscience, educational psychology and cognitive writing research has demonstrated that language learning and performance may differ depending on whether a writer employs pen and paper as opposed to using keyboard and screen (Chan et al 2017;Ihara et al 2021). In spite of these findings, the area of L2 writing research has paid little attention to the idiosyncrasy of learning and performance in L2 writing tasks in paper-based versus computer-based writing modalities.…”