Affirmative action and long-run changes in group inequality in India

Abstract

Research on caste-based inequalities in India has generally focused on differences between large categories such as the Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled Tribes, and the remainder of the population. We contribute to the literature on horizontal inequalities in India by looking within these groupings, and studying differences between the individual jatis that comprise these categories. Using census data, we find evidence of persistent inequalities in educational outcomes between the jatis, suggesting that socio-economic hierarchies have proved to be stable throughout the post-Independence period. Indeed, the evidence points to divergence: communities with more education in 1961 also had higher educational attainment in 2001. Also, while numerically larger Scheduled Caste communities witnessed greater improvements in educational levels compared to smaller ones, this was not true for the Scheduled Tribes. This may be the result of their greater political mobilization.

4. Group Inequality in Democracies: Lessons from Cross-National Experiences

“…For India, we find that education was an important driver of mobility for historically disadvantaged groups, yet was politically less popular than targeted policies such as affirmative action in government jobs. Kumar and Somanathan (2016) present data from the Indian census over the period 1961-2001 which suggests that disadvantaged castes had the largest gains in educational attainment in states that emphasized public schooling rather than those in which these groups had political influence. As the returns to education increased in the liberalized economy of nineties, Munshi and Rosenzweig (2006) show that families from the lower ranked castes that invested in education had high returns in the labor market.…”

Establishing a Demographic, Development and Environmental Geospatial Surveillance Platform in India: Planning and Implementation

“…The updated information on fine administrative boundaries (village, hamlets, land parcels) of the study area was missing from administrative records [ 35 ]. Official census maps (1:2 km scale) of the SOMAARTH area showed the boundaries of only 43 revenue villages; the district planning map helped delineate 4 additional small villages.…”

“…High-resolution satellite data along with community inputs helped in the identification of 4 new villages that were not present in official administrative records. Government records pertaining to fine administrative boundaries (village, hamlets, land parcels) are not regularly updated [ 19 , 35 ] and provide only aggregated data for revenue villages in developing countries. The community involvement provided insight into the local knowledge system, cultural practices, traditions, and customs [ 28 ], which were reflected in the organization of habitations and adjoining physical environment, identification of marginalized unnotified population groups, and access to traditional and cultural resources as well as community nomenclature, for example, chaupal (public places), johad (pond), kos minar (historical landmark), and phirni (ring road around the village).…”

Language and learning in ethnically mixed communities

“…9. 9. The Santhals are the third largest Scheduled Tribe in the country and the Oraons are the fourth largest, comprising 7% and 5% of the Scheduled Tribe population, respectively (Kumar & Somanathan, 2016). …”

“…The primary school completion rates are 41% and 58%, respectively (Government of India, 2011a, Tables C‐08 and C‐08 ST). See Kumar and Somanathan (2016) for trends in educational mobility for Scheduled Tribes relative to the rest of the population between 1961 and 2001.…”