African Lions and Zoonotic Diseases: Implications for Commercial Lion Farms in South Africa

Abstract

African lions (Panthera leo) are bred in captivity on commercial farms across South Africa and often have close contact with farm staff, tourists, and other industry workers. As transmission of zoonotic diseases occurs through close proximity between wildlife and humans, these commercial captive breeding operations pose a potential risk to thousands of captive lions and to public health. An understanding of pathogens known to affect lions is needed to effectively assess the risk of disease emergence and transmission within the industry. Here, we conduct a systematic search of the academic literature, identifying 148 peer-reviewed studies, to summarize the range of pathogens and parasites known to affect African lions. A total of 63 pathogenic organisms were recorded, belonging to 35 genera across 30 taxonomic families. Over half were parasites (35, 56%), followed by viruses (17, 27%) and bacteria (11, 17%). A number of novel pathogens representing unidentified and undescribed species were also reported. Among the pathogenic inventory are species that can be transmitted from lions to other species, including humans. In addition, 83 clinical symptoms and diseases associated with these pathogens were identified. Given the risks posed by infectious diseases, this research highlights the potential public health risks associated with the captive breeding industry. We recommend that relevant authorities take imminent action to help prevent and manage the risks posed by zoonotic pathogens on lion farms.

Wildlife Trade for Belief-Based Use: Insights From Traditional Healers in South Africa

“…In addition to threatening traded species and co-existing biota, the growing global trade in wildlife also has widespread repercussions that negatively affect ecosystems and societies through promoting the spread of invasive species (Cardoso et al, 2021;Diagne et al, 2021), creating opportunity for zoonotic disease emergence and transmission (Nieman et al, 2019;D'Cruze et al, 2020b), and causing substantial animal welfare concerns throughout the trade chain (Baker et al, 2013). The number of people handling wild animals and their parts and derivatives in the traditional medicine industry, including (but not limited to) poachers, breeders, middlemen, practitioners and consumers, puts a large number of people at increased risk of contracting zoonotic diseases (Green et al, 2020). Mammals are particularly common hosts of zoonotic diseases (White and Razgour, 2020), and are also the class with the greatest species diversity identified for use in traditional healing in our study and similar other studies (Whiting et al, 2013;Nieman et al, 2019).…”

“…Harvesting or breeding wild animals for commercial use can also have severe consequences for both animal welfare and public health. When humans have direct contact with wild species there is increased opportunity for pathogen transmission, facilitating the emergence and spread of zoonotic diseases, which has been noted as a potential cause for concern among traditional healers handling wild animals in South Africa (Nieman et al, 2019) and for husbandry staff at captive lion breeding facilities across the country (Green et al, 2020). Both wild capture and captive breeding of wildlife are inherently associated with animal welfare concerns as the potential for suffering exists throughout every stage of the trade chain (Baker et al, 2013;D'Cruze et al, 2020b).…”

Poor Welfare Indicators and Husbandry Practices at Lion (Panthera Leo) “Cub-Petting” Facilities: Evidence from Public YouTube Videos

“…In general, litters depend on their mother and other female pride members for food and care until they are at least 10 months old [ 33 ]. Cubs who are separated from their mothers are often given an alternative milk formula at lion farms and other captive petting facilities which may lead to nutritional deficiencies that weaken their immune system, rendering them vulnerable to pathogens [ 34 ]. Additionally, cubs show a strong tendency to remain at their mother and pride lionesses’ sides through maturity, about two to three years in the wild [ 35 ].…”

“…Regulation, guidelines, lion welfare, conservation, health and safety, and more issues need to be addressed by various stakeholders in order to develop and implement this process. Though rare, cases of zoonotic disease transmission between humans and captive lions in close proximity have been scientifically documented, and generally speaking, high concentrations of captive wild animals may suffer from factors such as poor diet and stress, which are known to cause a higher risk of infectious disease transmission, posing a threat to both the lions and public health [ 34 ]. One of the simplest ways to manage and prevent these risks globally is to limit regular or prolonged close contact between humans and wild animals.…”

Emerging and Re-Emerging Diseases: Novel Challenges in Today’s World or More of the Same?

“…It first starts with three interesting reviews, the first on zoonotic diseases of African Lions, ( Panthera leo ) that are bred in captivity on commercial farms across South Africa and often have close contact with farm staff, tourists, and other industry workers, hence posing a potential risk of disease interchange between lions and humans [ 8 ]. The systematic review describes a total of 63 pathogenic organisms, with several known pathogens that can be transmitted from lions to other species, including humans.…”