Air Microbial Contamination at the Holy Mosque, Makkah, Saudi Arabia

Abstract

Airborne microbial contamination was collected from the main directions of the holy mosque (Al-Haram mosque), Makkah city, by using the gravitational method.Bacteria, fungi and actinomycete concentrations ranged between 1470 -21800 CFU/m 3 ; 44 -572 CFU/m 3 , and 0.0 -264 CFU/m 3 , respectively at all directions. Bacterial concentrations significantly differed between directions, and Gram positive bacteria constituted ~ 90-100% of the total bacterial isolates. Gammaproteo bacteria were the common Gram negative bacteria, and Aspergillus was the predominant fungal genera. Mesophilic bacteria negatively related (P< 0.05) with relative humidity. Human activities had more effective influence on the microbial concentrations than the meteorological factors.

Viral respiratory infections among Hajj pilgrims in 2013

“…During Hajj, up to 3 million pilgrims assemble in Mecca city before moving in a body to Mina (a small valley at the outskirts of Mecca), where they live in tents shared by, depending on size, between 30 and 150 persons. The interplay of multitude of factors including severe crowding, limited facilities and time for personal hygiene, and particulate and microbiological air pollution at Hajj increases the risk of acquisition of respiratory viruses by up to 8 fold Hameed A A, et al, 2013;Haworth E, et al, 2013;. The emergence of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in the Gulf region with its epicentre in Saudi Arabia has raised major concern over the possibility of home-bound pilgrims' spreading of MERS-CoV globally Rashid H, et al, 2014).…”

Influenza Vaccination Among Australian Hajj Pilgrims: Uptake, Attitudes, and Barriers

“…Severe crowding, shared accommodation, reduced personal hygiene, and environmental pollution at Hajj may collectively lead to increased transmission of respiratory viruses, notably influenza. [1][2][3] Several months before each Hajj, the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Health (MoH) publishes health recommendations including vaccination requirements for pilgrims. 4 Influenza vaccine has been recommended since 2005, particularly for people "at-risk" of severe complications, defined as those aged ≥65 years and/or people with preexisting medical conditions such as chronic lung, heart, liver, kidney, neuromuscular, 10 Pre-travel and post-travel surveys for the same participants in travel clinics followed up by telephone interview…”

Environmental sampling for respiratory pathogens in Jeddah airport during the 2013 Hajj season

“…22 A number of studies investigated bacterial and fungal air contamination in Saudi cities (eg, Riyadh, Hofuf, Mecca, Taif). 23 In one report, 24 air samples were collected from various public areas in the Mecca region during the 1998 Hajj season. A total of 38 species of fungi and 19 bacterial species belonging to 6 genera were isolated.…”

“…In relation to Hajj, few studies investigated microbial contamination of the air in and around the main pilgrimage locations. In one study, 23 airborne microbial contamination was investigated using a gravitational method (passive sampling using settle plates) at the 4 corners of the holy mosque (Al-Haram Mosque) in Mecca, a key location during the Hajj. Bacteria and fungi concentrations ranged between 1 (21 Â10 3 CFU/m 3 ) and 4 (57 Â 10 2 CFU/m 3 ) at all corners.…”

“…For instance, studies have shown that human activity and densely populated areas have an effect on the density and variety of microorganisms in the environment. 20,23 Our study aimed to detect a set of 22 viral and bacterial pathogens. This meant that other respiratory pathogens, including fungi and other viruses and bacteria not included in the panel, would have been missed.…”