Genetic modifiers can be detected in mice by looking for strain background differences in inheritance or phenotype of a mutation. They can be mapped by analyses of appropriate linkage crosses and congenic lines, and modifier genes of large effect can be identified by positionalcandidate gene testing. Inbred strains of mice vary widely in onset and severity of age-related hearing loss (AHL), an important consideration when assessing hearing in mutant mice. At least 8 mapped loci and a mitochondrial variant (mt-Tr) are known to contribute to AHL in mouse strains; one locus (ahl) has been identified as a variant of the cadherin 23 gene (Cdh23 753A/G ). This variant also was shown to modify hearing loss associated with the Atp2b2 dfw-2J and Mass1 frings mutations. The hearing modifier (Moth1) of tubby (Tub tub ) mutant mice was shown to be a strain variant of the Mtap1a gene. Human hearing modifiers include DFNM1, which suppresses recessive deafness DFNB26, and a nuclear gene that modulates the severity of hearing loss associated with a mitochondrial mutation. Recently, a variant of the human ATP2B2 gene was shown to exacerbate hearing loss in individuals homozygous for a CDH23 mutation, similar to the Atp2b2 dfw-2J -Cdh23 753A/G interaction affecting hearing in mice. Because modifier genes and digenic inheritance are not always distinguishable, we also include in this review several examples of digenic inheritance of hearing loss that have been reported in both mice and humans.
KeywordsModifier gene; Genetic background; Inbred mouse strain; Age-related hearing loss; Digenic inheritance; AHL; QTL
Phenotypic diversity, strain background, and modifier genesGenetic modifiers are heritable factors capable of modifying the phenotype of a mutant gene without having an obvious effect on the normal condition. Modifier genes are found in all genetically mixed populations and their collective influence on a mutant phenotype is referred to as the genetic background effect or, in the case of inbred strains of mice, the strain background effect. Previously published review papers are replete with examples of the effects of modifier genes on the phenotypic diversity of a wide variety of genetic disorders in humans and mice (Barthold, 2004;Erickson, 1996;Houlston and Tomlinson, 1998;Montagutelli, 2000;Nadeau, 2001Nadeau, , 2003Romeo and McKusick, 1994;Slavotinek and Biesecker, 2003). Examples of modifier genes are especially prevalent in genetically heterogeneous phenotypes like sensorineural deafness (Slavotinek and Biesecker, 2003), and *Corresponding author. Fax: +1 207 288 6149. krj@jax.org (K.R. Johnson).
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NIH-PA Author ManuscriptNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript some reviews have focused specifically on modifiers of hearing (Ahituv and Avraham, 2002;Friedman et al., 2000;Haider et al., 2002;Riazuddin et al., 2002). Here, we present an updated review on strain background effects and genetic modifiers of hearing in mice including some related results from studies of human populations.G...