Alternative thinking about starting points of obesity. Development of child taste preferences

Abstract

A c c e p t e d M a n u s c r i p t 2 Food marketers are at the epicenter of criticism for the unfolding obesity epidemic as societies consider banning advertising to children and taxing "junk" foods. While marketing's role in obesity is not well understood, there is clear evidence that children are regularly targeted with calorie-dense, nutrient-poor food. Much of the past research seeks to understand how marketing influences brand preference and child requests. The authors argue that understanding palate development offers new insights for discussion. Two studies consider whether a sugar/fat/salt (SFS) palate is linked to children's knowledge of food brands, experience with products, and advertising. In study 1, the authors develop a survey measure of taste preferences and find that a child's SFS palate (as reported by parents) relates significantly to children's self-reported food choices. Study 2 examines how knowledge of certain branded food and drinks is related to palate. Findings show that children with detailed mental representations of fast-food and soda brands -developed via advertising and experience -have higher scores on the SFS palate scale.Keywords: fast-food, advertising, consumer behavior, public policy, children, preschool, have been proposed. Likewise, the redesign of food offerings in certain environments is under scrutiny, particularly in schools. Often targeted in this discussion are energy dense products high in sugar, fat, and salt and in particular, "fast-food" and soft drinks.How is it that food and drink manufacturers and restaurant chains have come to offer so many products high in sugar, fat, and salt? One possible answer is that it has occurred in the pursuit of taste preference. Competitive market forces continually push companies to offer products that are preferred over others. In a 2004 study conducted for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services, a major barrier to food reformulation to meet societal weight management goals was consumer acceptance (Muth, Zorn, & Kosa, 2004). In the study, food manufacturers considered taste to be more important than calorie targets in product formulation and decisions were made with consumer acceptance in mind. In the same study, restaurant chains expressed that low calorie menus are challenging because fats and sugars contribute flavor to food and people want flavorful offerings. This discussion is consistent both with reports of failure of demand for healthy menu items (Grant, 2006) and with the expansion of "extreme" flavored foods (Liem & Mennella, 2003).There appears to be a self-perpetuating cycle of consumer preference for sugar, fat, and salt, and manufacturer supply of foods that contribute to unhealthy eating habits. A Page 4 of 50 A c c e p t e d M a n u s c r i p t 4 review of the literature on development of food preference from 1999 found that "the ready availability of energy-dense foods, high in sugar, fat, and salt, provides an eating environment that fosters food preferences incons...

Sodium and Sugar in Complementary Infant and Toddler Foods Sold in the United States

“…These results are somewhat concerning, given the research suggesting that exposure to sodium and added sugars in early life can affect taste preferences, intake, and health later in life. [13][14][15]40 Our study is the most recent and comprehensive research on the sodium and sugar content of US commercial infant and toddler food products. Despite differences in thresholds used to identify excess nutrient content, food products, and food categories, our overall findings on sodium and total sugar content are similar to the Canadian studies indicating 25,26 many types of infant and toddler food products did not have low sugar or sodium content.…”

“…Early life exposures to sodium and sugar can set taste preferences and determine health trajectories. [13][14][15] Furthermore, the majority of US children visit pediatricians annually, thus providing opportunities for counseling parents about food choices for their children. 16 According to the 2014 American Academy of Pediatrics Nutrition Handbook, "food choices to be encouraged, whether home or commercially prepared, are those with no added salt or sugar."…”

Associations between weight status and liking scores for sweet, salt and fat according to the gender in adults (The Nutrinet-Santé study)

“…3 Sensory attributes of foods, especially food hedonics, are known to have an important role in human eating behaviour 4,5 and may thus have some responsibility in the obesity epidemic. [6][7][8][9] Although this question is of interest to better define public health actions, it remains unsolved.…”

Pester power and its consequences: do European children’s food purchasing requests relate to diet and weight outcomes?

“…For example, in a study of British parents, researchers found correlations between children's attempts to influence their parent's purchases and the type of product, with the strongest correlations for sweets, snack foods and cereals (21) . Given children's preference for both high-sugar and high-fat foods (22,23) , and the powerful forces of marketing such items to children, it is plausible that frequent compliance with children's food requests could result in unhealthy diets. However, the effect of pestering on health outcomes is unknown.…”