Altitude underlies variation in the mating system, somatic condition, and investment in reproductive traits in male Asian grass frogs (Fejervarya limnocharis)

Abstract

There is substantial comparative and growing experimental evidence that the competition for fertilization among sperm from different males can drive variation in male reproductive investments. However, less is known about the extent of natural variation in these investments relative to environmental variables affecting resource availability and mating system dynamics, which would allow insights into the mechanisms shaping reproductive allocation. Here, we studied interpopulation variation in male investments in testis size and sperm length across 25 populations of the Asian grass frog Fejervarya limnocharis along a 1550-km latitudinal and 1403-m altitudinal transect in China. We found relative testis mass and sperm length, male somatic condition, and the male/female sex ratio to increase with elevation but not latitude or longitude. Our results suggest that environmental variation may underlie local adaptations to reproductive investments among natural populations, mediated by differences in the availability of both resources and sexual partners (including the resulting male-male competition). These findings contrast with previous predictions that increasing latitude and/or elevation should lead to declining reproductive investments in male anurans due to shortening breeding seasons, declining resource availability, and lowering (rather than increasing) male/female sex ratios. We discuss these species differences in the context of differential resource allocation strategies, breeding ecology, and patterns of male-male competition. These differences show the need for future work on reproductive investments in anurans beyond the few model systems and for potential extension of the theoretical framework to species with different mating systems and strategies. Significance statementDespite a broad theoretical framework of how environmental parameters can shape mating systems and these, in turn, drive the evolution of reproductive traits, there is limited empirical evidence from natural populations. We examined differences in the size of testes and sperm between males between natural populations along latitudinal and altitudinal transects. We found that at high elevation, males were relatively heavier and had longer sperm and disproportionately large testes, and the sex ratio was more male-biased. These interpopulation differences may reflect local adaptations to variation in the resource availability and temporal patterns of female availability, which affects the breeding synchrony, sperm demand, and male-male competition for mates and paternity. However, our results differ from previous studies of frogs, possibly due to different breeding ecology, which highlights the need for further work and potential extension of theoretical predictions to non-model anurans.

Large-brained frogs mature later and live longer

“…Brain mass was neither affected by the duration of preservation nor the method of euthanization (Jin et al. ; Luo et al. ).…”

“…Then, we dissected out the brains and weighed them to nearest 0.1 mg with an electronic balance. Brain mass was neither affected by the duration of preservation nor the method of euthanization (Jin et al 2016;Luo et al 2017). We obtained volumetric measures of the five major brain regions (olfactory nerves, olfactory bulbs, telencephalon, optic tectum, and cerebellum; see next).…”

Ejaculate evolution in external fertilizers: Influenced by sperm competition or sperm limitation?

“…We weighed all individuals to the nearest 0.1 mg using an electronic balance before sacrificing them by single‐ or double‐pithing (Jin et al. ; Liao et al. ) and dissecting their testes.…”

“…We kept males individually at room temperature in wire-netting rectangular containers (L × W × H = 20 × 10 × 15 cm) placed inside a tank (90 × 40 × 40 cm) with water to a depth of 10 cm. We weighed all individuals to the nearest 0.1 mg using an electronic balance before sacrificing them by single-or double-pithing (Jin et al 2016b;Liao et al 2016) and dissecting their testes.…”

Population density and structure drive differential investment in pre- and postmating sexual traits in frogs

“…Because population density and the OSR in particular have been shown to vary considerably, both temporally and spatially (Byrne 2004;Dziminski et al 2010;Buzatto et al 2015;Jin et al 2016), we further used a resampling approach to examine the robustness of our results based on species means. Because population density and the OSR in particular have been shown to vary considerably, both temporally and spatially (Byrne 2004;Dziminski et al 2010;Buzatto et al 2015;Jin et al 2016), we further used a resampling approach to examine the robustness of our results based on species means.…”