Amazing Fungi for Eco-Friendly Composite Materials: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

The continually expanding use of plastic throughout our world, along with the considerable increase in agricultural productivity, has resulted in a worrying increase in global waste and related environmental problems. The reuse and replacement of plastic with biomaterials, as well as the recycling of agricultural waste, are key components of a strategy to reduce plastic waste. Agricultural waste is characterized as lignocellulosic materials that mainly consist of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Saprobe fungi are able to convert agricultural waste into nutrients for their own growth and to facilitate the creation of mycelium-based composites (MBC) through bio-fabrication processes. Remarkably, different fungal species, substrates, and pressing and drying methods have resulted in varying chemical, mechanical, physical, and biological properties of the resulting composites that ultimately vary the functional aspects of the finished MBC. Over the last two decades, several innovative designs have produced a variety of MBC that can be applied across a range of industrial uses including in packaging and in the manufacturing of household items, furniture, and building materials that can replace foams, plastics, and wood products. Materials developed from MBC can be considered highly functional materials that offer renewable and biodegradable benefits as promising alternatives. Therefore, a better understanding of the beneficial properties of MBC is crucial for their potential applications in a variety of fields. Here, we have conducted a brief review of the current findings of relevant studies through an overview of recently published literature on MBC production and the physical, mechanical, chemical, and biological properties of these composites for use in innovative architecture, construction, and product designs. The advantages and disadvantages of various applications of mycelium-based materials (MBM) in various fields have been summarized. Finally, patent trends involving the use of MBM as a new and sustainable biomaterial have also been reviewed. The resulting knowledge can be used by researchers to develop and apply MBC in the form of eco-friendly materials in the future.

Mechanical, Physical, and Chemical Properties of Mycelium-Based Composites Produced from Various Lignocellulosic Residues and Fungal Species

“…However, the lowest degree of density was obtained from MBCs made from rice straw and S. commune. It was found that the obtained density values in this study were within the ranges described in previous reports at 25 to 954 kg/m 3 [19,21,26,35,36,39,[46][47][48]. The results of this study are supported by the findings of several previous studies, which reported that the density of MBCs was significantly influenced by substrate type and fungal species [19,21,26,42].…”

“…Saprobic fungi can degrade lignocellulosic residues into nutrients through certain bio-fabricated processes wherein their mycelia networks can effectively combine substrate particles together [18]. Ganoderma, Pleurotus, Pycnoporus, and Trametes are the most commonly used fungal genera in the production of MBCs [19][20][21]. Interestingly, MBCs have successfully been employed in the development of mycelium-based materials that can be applied in the construction of buildings and in the manufacturing of furniture, packaging, and various other household items [20][21][22][23].…”

“…Interestingly, MBCs have several major advantages over classical lignocellulosic composites in that they contain greater amounts of chitin and exhibit higher Young's modulus and lower elongation capabilities [21,25]. Presently, the Ecovative Company sells packaging and board products that are made from MBCs and that are sold on a commercial basis [19]. Foam-like materials made from MBCs are marketed under the name MycoFlex TM [19].…”

“…Presently, the Ecovative Company sells packaging and board products that are made from MBCs and that are sold on a commercial basis [19]. Foam-like materials made from MBCs are marketed under the name MycoFlex TM [19]. Furthermore, mycelium-based construction materials derived from MBCs have been developed on a laboratory scale in several cumulative forms, including block materials, particle board, acoustic materials, thermal insulation, cladding materials, surface materials (thin sheets and film), and paste materials [19,[26][27][28][29][30][31].…”

“…Foam-like materials made from MBCs are marketed under the name MycoFlex TM [19]. Furthermore, mycelium-based construction materials derived from MBCs have been developed on a laboratory scale in several cumulative forms, including block materials, particle board, acoustic materials, thermal insulation, cladding materials, surface materials (thin sheets and film), and paste materials [19,[26][27][28][29][30][31]. MBCs are generated from various forms of lignocellulosic residues and fungal species that are available in each country [27,32].…”