America, the EU and Strategic Culture

Characterizing the European Union's Strategic Culture: An Analytical Framework

“…There is a lack of consensus and agreement among Member States about the means and ends of security policy (Baun, 2005), about ‘where, how, when and for what reasons the EU should engage in foreign policy’ (Toje, 2005, p. 10). As a result of such divergence, there was an unsuccessful effort to issue a European White Paper, introduced under the heading ‘defence and security’, as one of the 2001 Belgian Presidency priorities in an attempt to promote a dynamic trend that would have eventually resulted in the redaction of a European White Paper on Security and Defence (Dumoulin et al ., 2003).…”

“…As a result of such divergence, there was an unsuccessful effort to issue a European White Paper, introduced under the heading ‘defence and security’, as one of the 2001 Belgian Presidency priorities in an attempt to promote a dynamic trend that would have eventually resulted in the redaction of a European White Paper on Security and Defence (Dumoulin et al ., 2003). The European Security Strategy (ESS), A Secure Europe in a Better World (European Council, 2003), does not make explicit reference to the ‘use of force’ or ‘power’, but rather ‘military activities’, ‘robust intervention’ and a ‘price to be paid’ (Toje, 2005, p. 552).…”

“…Cultural, ideational and normative influences explain the motivations and causes of state behaviour and that of their leaders (Johnston, 1999; Heiselberg, 2003). The underlying central assumption embedded within the concept is ‘the belief that traditions, values, attitudes, patterns of behaviour, habits, symbols, achievements and historical experience shape strategic behaviour and actual policy making’ (Toje, 2005,p. 11).…”

“…Some analysts contend that the EU has not yet developed a sufficiently coherent or consistent approach to the use of force to be able to speak of an EU strategic culture (Lindley‐French, 2002; Rynning, 2003; Tardy, 2007). It is argued that the EU has reached a pivotal point and faces a difficult choice ‘whether to remain a primarily civilian actor in international politics or to transform itself through greater foreign and security policy integration’ (Toje, 2005, p. 9; Heusgen, 2005).…”

When Soft Power Turns Hard: Is an EU Strategic Culture Possible?

“…The Achilles heel of coercive diplomacy in the EU lies in the Union's need for multilateral legitimacy in using force, as well as in its need to achieve unitary actor status before a threat can be launched. In current debates among policymakers and academics, there is considerable disagreement over whether the EU is able to develop a strategic culture (Toje, 2005;Naumann, 2005;Heusgen, 2005;Lantis, 2005). Solana himself calls for 'the need to develop a strategic culture that fosters rapid and when necessary robust intervention' (quoted in Toje, 2005: 11; my emphasis).…”