Amyloid-Beta Immunotherapy for the Prevention and Treatment of Alzheimer Disease: Lessons from Mice, Monkeys, and Humans

Abstract

Alzheimer disease (AD), the most common form of dementia, is without an effective cure or preventive treatment. Recently, amyloid-beta protein (Abeta) has become a major therapeutic target. Many efforts are underway to either reduce the production of Abeta or enhance its clearance. In 1999, Schenk and colleagues first showed that active immunization with full-length Abeta lowered cerebral Abeta levels in transgenic mice. These findings have been confirmed and extended in various transgenic mouse models of AD using both active and passive Abeta immunization. Cognitive improvement also has been reported in association with active and passive Abeta vaccination in AD-like mouse models, even in the absence of significant reductions in cerebral Abeta loads. In 2004, the authors reported that active immunization with full-length Abeta in aged nonhuman primates, Caribbean vervets, reduced cerebral Abeta levels and gliosis. Proposed mechanisms of Abeta clearance by immunotherapy include disruption of Abeta aggregates, Abeta phagocytosis by microglia, neutralization of Abeta oligomers at the synapse, and increased efflux of Abeta from brain to blood. A phase IIa clinical trial was halted in 2002 because of the appearance of meningoencephalitis in approximately 6% of the AD patients. Although the exact cause of these adverse events is unknown, the immunogen, full-length Abeta1-42, may have been recognized as a self-antigen leading to an autoimmune response in some patients. Limited cognitive stabilization and apparent plaque clearance have been reported in subsets of patients who generated antibody titers. Currently, a passive immunization trial with a recombinant humanized monoclonal Abeta antibody is underway in humans. In the meantime, the authors are developing novel Abeta peptide immunogens for active immunization to target Abeta B cell epitope(s) and avoid Abeta-specific T-cell reactions in order to generate a safe and effective AD vaccine. The authors remain optimistic about the potential of such a vaccine for the prevention and treatment of AD.

Neural stem cells improve cognition via BDNF in a transgenic model of Alzheimer disease

“…A␤-lowering treatments consistently rescue cognitive deficits in many AD transgenic models (4,11,12). More recently, we and others found that paradigms that diminish soluble tau can also ameliorate cognitive decline (13)(14)(15).…”

Complex Pharmacokinetics of a Humanized Antibody Against Human Amyloid Beta Peptide, Anti-Abeta Ab2, in Nonclinical Species

“…For the treatment of AD, both passive Aβ immunization (i.e. peripheral administration of anti-Aβ antibodies) and active immunization with Aβ are being explored (1)(2)(3)(4)(5). The amino acid sequence of Aβ 1-42 is 100% conserved between humans and most primates; however, the N-terminal Aβ sequence is not conserved between primates and rodents.…”

“…Human APP transgenic mice (PSAPP Tg+, Tg2576, and PDAPP Tg+ mice) exhibit age-dependent changes that are similar to those seen in humans with AD (6)(7)(8)(9). In mouse models of AD, administration of anti-Aβ antibodies or active immunization with Aβ improved cognitive function and reduced amyloid burden (3)(4)(5). Despite numerous preclinical studies with various anti-Aβ antibodies, there is no consensus on their mechanism of action.…”

Alzheimer's Factors in Ischemic Brain Injury

“…Human -amyloid peptide removal/treatment has remarkable effects in ischemic brain injury (Pluta et al, 1998a;Pluta et al, 1999;Pluta, Ulamek 2008) and less effect in mice with overexpressed amyloid pathology (Schenk et al, 1999). Experience in patient's vaccination was less convincing (Nicoll et al, 2003;Lemere et al, 2006;Hawkes, McLaurin 2007). Trials in cases with amyloid pathology were stopped when 6% of immunized patients developed meningoencephalitis (Nicoll et al, 2003;Orgogozo et al, 2003;Gilman et al, 2005).…”