An analysis of learned helplessness: Continuous changes in performance, strategy, and achievement cognitions following failure.

Abstract

Helpless children show marked performance decrements under failure, whereas mastery-oriented children often show enhanced performance. Current theories emphasize differences in the nature of the attributions following failure as determinants of response to failure. The present studies explored helpless versus mastery-oriented differences in the nature, timing, and relative frequency of a variety of achievement-related cognitions by continuously monitoring verbalizations following failure. The results revealed that helpless children made the expected attributions for failure to lack of ability; mastery-oriented children made surprisingly few attributions but instead engaged in self-monitoring and selfinstructions. That is, helpless children focused on the cause of failure, whereas the mastery-oriented children focused on remedies for failure. These differences were accompanied by striking differences in strategy change under failure. The results suggest that in addition to the nature of the attribution one makes, the timing or even occurrence of attributions may be a critical individual difference. Past research has linked deterioration in performance following failure to learned helplessness-the perceived inability to surmount failure (Dweck, 197S; Dweck & Bush, 1976; This study is based on a master's thesis submitted by the first author to the

Breaking the double-edged sword of effort/trying hard: Developmental equilibrium and longitudinal relations among effort, achievement, and academic self-concept.

“…Theories of intelligence are logically related to attributions of the causes of success and, in particular, failure (Diener & Dweck, 1978). Children with a fixed mindset are more likely to attribute outcome to ability, whilst those with a growth mindset are more likely to attribute outcomes to effort.…”

The role of temperament in children's affective and behavioral responses in achievement situations

“…Although such behaviors are students' attempts to cope with the situational demands and stress in academic settings, they have negative consequences on students' performance. Students showing helplessness or passive avoidance in academic settings tend to attribute success to external, unstable, and situationspecific causes (Diener & Dweck, 1978;Nolen-Hoeksema et al, 1986). This maladaptive attributional style leads the students to expect no success, to experience negative affect, and to withdraw effort (Dweck, 1986;Nolen-Hoeksema et al, 1986).…”

“…Some students react to challenges with enthusiasm and by focusing on the task, whereas others become anxious and passive, or actively try to avoid the challenge (e.g., Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Responses such as task avoidance, helplessness, and anxiety are considered maladaptive because they do not promote students' performance and skill development (e.g., Bandura, 1993;Diener & Dweck, 1978;Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry, 2002). From motivational perspective, achievement-related affects and behaviors can be interpreted in the light of students' previous experiences in learning situations, and how these experiences influence their beliefs in their own competence, their expectations for succeeding in the tasks, and their willingness to invest effort in them (e.g., Bandura, 1993;Dweck & Leggett, 1988).…”

Effects of failure on subsequent performance: The importance of self-defining goals.

“…Electronic mail may be sent via the Internet to brunstein@pc.psychologie.uni-erlangen. de. formance ( Brunstein, 1994;Brunstein &Olbrich, 1985;Diener & Dweck, 1978). As Kuhl (1981Kuhl ( , 1984Kuhl & Weiss, 1994) pointed out, state-oriented people characterized by perservering thoughts about failure do indeed display more performance shortcomings after failure than do action-oriented people who do not engage in perservering thoughts.…”