An ecological framework for contextualizing carnivore–livestock conflict

Abstract

Carnivore predation on livestock is a complex management and policy challenge, yet it is also intrinsically an ecological interaction between predators and prey. Human-wildlife interactions occur in socioecological systems in which human and environmental processes are closely linked. However, underlying human-wildlife conflict and key to unpacking its complexity are concrete and identifiable ecological mechanisms that lead to predation events. To better understand how ecological theory accords with interactions between wild predators and domestic prey, we developed a framework to describe ecological drivers of predation on livestock. We based this framework on foundational ecological theory and current research on interactions between predators and domestic prey. We used this framework to examine ecological mechanisms (e.g., density-mediated effects, behaviorally mediated effects, and optimal foraging theory) through which specific management interventions operate, and we analyzed the ecological determinants of failure and success of management interventions in 3 case studies: snow leopards (Panthera uncia), wolves (Canis lupus), and cougars (Puma concolor). The varied, context-dependent successes and failures of the management interventions in these case studies demonstrated the utility of using an ecological framework to ground research and management of carnivore-livestock conflict. Mitigation of human-wildlife conflict appears to require an understanding of how fundamental ecological theories work within domestic predator-prey systems.

Human–wildlife coexistence in a changing world

“…To make progress toward human–wildlife coexistence, a better understanding and objective testing of assumptions about the causes of wildlife‐induced damages from various perspectives, including wildlife ecology, human perceptions and behavior, and legal frameworks (Chapron & López‐Bao 2020; Treves & Santiago‐Ávila 2020 [this issue]; Wilkinson et al. 2020 [this issue]) is essential. This is particularly important in landscapes where people have modified nature in such a way that agriculture provides habitat to some (protected) species and where novel governance models are needed to balance shared land use between people and wildlife.…”

“…2020 [this issue]; Tsunoda & Enari 2020 [this issue]; Wilkinson et al. 2020) and transboundary PAs and areas surrounding PAs (Jordan et al. 2020 [this issue]; Martínez‐Jauregui et al.…”

“…Wilkinson et al. (2020) developed an ecological framework to contextualize carnivore–livestock conflicts. They took an ecological perspective of the relationship between predators and domestic prey in a case study of snow leopards (Asia) and wolves and cougars ( Puma concolor ) (North America), arguing that the mitigation of HWC requires understanding of ecological mechanisms.…”

Patterns of coyote predation on sheep in California: A socio‐ecological approach to mapping risk of livestock–predator conflict

“…Ecologists have demonstrated that heterogeneous environments produce differential risks of predation, and that habitat characteristics, topography, ambush points, and other such landscape features are essential to the spatial patterning of predation risk (Brown, 1999; Gaynor et al, 2019; Trainor, Schmitz, Ivan, & Shenk, 2014). More recent research has applied these ecological theories to livestock predation (Kluever, Breck, Howery, Krausman, & Bergman, 2008; Kluever, Howery, Breck, & Bergman, 2009; Laporte, Muhly, Pitt, Alexander, & Musiani, 2010; Shrader, Brown, Kerley, & Kotler, 2008; Wilkinson et al, in press). In particular, the rapidly growing field of predation risk modeling uses statistical approaches from wildlife ecology to generate predictive, spatially explicit maps of livestock predation risk as it varies over a landscape (Miller, 2015; Treves & Naughton‐Treves, 2004).…”

“…Predation risk is thus a function of both ecological characteristics and human decisions and the interactions between the two, meaning that an accurate understanding of livestock predation risk patterns must be gained through a socio‐ecological lens. Ecological studies of livestock predation are still in need, and have important potential to reveal blind spots for livestock producers and managers regarding the circumstances and drivers of conflict (Wilkinson et al, in press). However, strictly ecological approaches may suffer from selection bias, in which available data do not represent the system, if they do not explicitly incorporate producer decisions regarding the distribution of livestock, and thus livestock predation.…”