An ethnoarchaeological study of livestock dung fuels from cooking installations in northern Tunisia

Abstract

Livestock dung is a valuable material in many rural communities worldwide. In our research area, the site of Althiburos and its surroundings, now el Médéïna, in northwestern Tunisia, dung is the main source of fuel for domestic purposes, primarily the processing and cooking of foods. Ovicaprine dung is daily used in traditional mud tannur type ovens, namely tabouna. The archaeological record shows that mud constructed cooking installations were common during the first millennium BC. Previous studies of phytoliths and dung spherulites at Numidian Althiburos suggested the use of vegetal and fecal matter for fuel purposes. We present here the results of the continuation study based on the comparison between archaeological results (a selection of cooking installations, six hearths and two mud ovens) and those obtained from the ethnographic study of dung fuel materials from the site area. The present study builds up on ethnographic observations and informal interviews (dung collection, management, storage, waste disposal and cooking and baking activities), temperature measurements within the burning fuel, as well as modern material sampling (fresh dung, burned pellets, dung ashes and fuel trash paths) which was followed by integrated studies of phytoliths and calcitic microfossil analyses (dung spherulites and wood ash pseudomorphs) for comparative purposes. The results obtained provided direct evidence regarding the type of fuel sources: dung, wood and a mixing of dung and vegetal matter (wood and agricultural by-products). Dung was used as source of fuel material across time (from the Early Numidian occupation phase, 10th-9th century BC, to the last centuries BC) and space (in different excavation areas and type of installations). Such integrated studies demonstrate the value of combining different microarchaeological techniques and the use of ethnoarchaeological material from site areas.

Early Animal Management Strategies during the Neolithic of the Konya Plain, Central Anatolia: Integrating Micromorphological and Microfossil Evidence

“…These are suggested to derive from ruminant faecal matter, particularly ovicaprines, as faunal remains from this site include a substantial proportion of herded sheep (Baird et al 2011). In addition, modern reference livestock dung datasets from Mediterranean areas have demonstrated that sheep and goats are prolific producers of dung spherulites (Portillo, Valenzuela, and Albert 2012;Portillo et al 2014;Portillo et al 2017). The dominant morphotypes in this assemblage are individual or single-celled phytoliths, mainly epidermal short cells, which are produced in the leaves, culms, and inflorescences of grasses.…”

“…The methods used in this study are similar to those proposed by Canti (1999). Portillo et al 2014Portillo et al , 2017Tsartsidou et al 2008).…”

“…Excavations at Boncuklu revealed the occurrence of suspected omnivore coprolites in open areas, while herbivore dung deposits were identified macroscopically in middens at Pınarbaşı. This study focuses solely on open spaces, as these are contexts in which potential animal enclosures can be detected, as observed in multiple ethno-archaeological studies around the world (Elliott et al 2015;Portillo et al 2014Portillo et al , 2017Shahack-Gross et al 2004;Tsartsidou et al 2008) At Boncuklu, zooarchaeological studies documented the exploitation of cattle and, to a lesser extent, boar/pig, with sheep and goat skeletal remains present in very low proportions (Baird et al 2012;. The wild/domestic status of these ovicaprines remains obscured based on morphometric grounds.…”

Livestock faecal indicators for animal management, penning, foddering and dung use in early agricultural built environments in the Konya Plain, Central Anatolia

“…Temperatures as high as 850°C were reached within a few minutes after lighting in modern traditional mud ovens operated with dung-dominated fuels, as reported in geoethnoarchaeological studies from different geographical regions (Gur-Arieh et al 2013;Portillo et al 2014Portillo et al , 2017. Dung fuels can sustain temperatures for longer than wood sources, remaining hot several hours after the end of the activity (e.g.…”

“…Comparative geo-ethnoarchaeological and experimental research on dung assemblages provides an important framework for examining the significance of dung indicators and their contextual associations, as well as the ecological and anthropogenic factors influencing these (e.g. Brochier et al 1992;Canti 1999;Shahack-Gross et al 2003Macphail et al 2004;Milek 2012;Portillo et al 2014Portillo et al , 2017Elliott et al 2015;Friesem 2016;Prost et al 2017;Égüez et al 2018).…”