“…The issues with forensic science raised by Kassin, Dror, and Kukucka (2013) equally apply to facial image comparison. Ground truth is often not known (Phillips, 2011), objective standards are still in the development phase (FISWG, 2012a), previous empirical studies have confirmed inter-variations (Butavicius et al, 2008; Megreya & Burton, 2006, 2007, 2008) and intra-variations in performance (Bindemann, Avetisyan, & Rakow, 2012), and the quantification of a match is not currently possible as there is no statistical basis for doing so (Mallett, Dryden, Vorder Bruegge, & Evison, 2010; Spaun & Vorder Bruegge, 2008).…”