“…Among them is the pulse pause modulation (PPM) control which has been implemented by a number of researchers on single-piston and opposed-piston FPEs (Achten, Van Den Oever, Potma, & Vael, 2000;Hibi & Ito, 2004;Zhao, Zhang, Huang, Zhao, & Guo, 2012). The main idea is to utilize hydraulic circuits as a bounce chamber which holds the piston at its bottom dead center (BDC) to achieve identical piston motion of each engine cycle.…”