An insight into the ecobiology, vector significance and control of Hyalomma ticks (Acari: Ixodidae): A review

Abstract

Ticks (Acari:Ixodoidea) are important ectoparasites infesting livestock and human populations around the globe. Ticks can cause damage directly by affecting the site of infestation, or indirectly as vectors of a wide range of protozoa, bacteria and viruses which ultimately lead to lowered productivity of livestock populations. Hyalomma is a genus of hard ticks, having more than 30 species well-adapted to hot, humid and cold climates. Habitat diversity, vector ability, and emerging problem of acaricidal resistance in enzootic regions typify this genus in various countries around the world. This paper reviews the epidemiology, associated risk factors (temperature, climate, age, sex, breed etc.), vector role, vector-pathogen association, and reported control strategies of genus Hyalomma. The various proteins in saliva of Hyalomma secreted into the blood stream of host and the prolonged attachment are responsible for the successful engorgement of female ticks in spite of host immune defense system. The various immunological approaches that have been tried by researchers in order to cause tick rejection are also discussed. In addition, the novel biological control approaches involving the use of entomo-pathogenic nematodes and Bacillus thuringiensis (B. thuringiensis) serovar thuringiensis H14; an endotoxin, for their acaricidal effect on different species and life cycle stages of Hyalomma are also presented.

Association of herd management with the infestation of ticks in domestic goats

“…Ticks have been found notorious for their sustainable distribution in various agro-geo climates of Pakistan over the last decade (Sajid, et al, 2007;2009;2017;Karim et al, 2017;Sajid et al, 2018;Hassan et al, 2018;Rashid et al, 2019;). The probable reasons of higher threat of ticks and tickborne diseases in developing countries (including Pakistan) may include but are not limited to warmer seasons and higher average temperatures, which promote the growth and propagation of ticks (Soulsby, 1982;Patel et al, 2013;Rizwan et al, 2019), the lack of appropriate husbandry practices i.e.…”

“…Directly, tick infestation is responsible for damaging the quality of hides and skin which ultimately reduce their economic value in leather industry. Indirectly, tick infestation is related to reduced milk production (Sajid et al, 2007), increased mortality (Jongejan & Uilenberg, 2004), transmission of serious diseases (such as anaplasmosis, babesiosis and theileriosis), causation of allergy, severe irritation and toxicosis (Khan et al, 2013;Peckle et al, 2013;Palomar et al, 2014;Rojas et al, 2014, Sajid et al, 2018. Livestock sector is an integral part of the economy of Pakistan as a considerable number of people depend upon keeping livestock for their sustenance.…”

“…Ticks have been well-documented from almost all regions of Pakistan including Sindh (Soomro et al, 2014), Khyber Pakhtunkwa (KPK) (Ali et al, 2019), Balochistan (Kakar et al, 2017), Punjab (Sajid et al, 2008;2009; and northern areas of Pakistan including Gilgit-Baltistan (Sajid et al, 2017). Many risk factors are associated with tick infestation in farm animals which have a direct impact on the epidemiology of tick-borne diseases (Karim et al, 2017;Sajid et al, 2018;Hassan et al, 2018;Rashid et al, 2019;Rizwan et al, 2019) Small ruminant population particularly goats (called as the poor man's cow) contribute a major share in the livestock population of the country (Afzal and Naqvi, 2003). However, in spite of immense significance of goats in the livestock economy of Pakistan, along with other animal health issues, information regarding the ticks and tick-borne disease dynamics in nomadic and settled farming systems and trends of the small holder goat farming community/ nomads about tick management in the country is lacking.…”

Four Year Surveillance of the Vector Hard Ticks for SFTS, Ganghwa-do, Republic of Korea

“…Among parasites, ticks are particularly considered from the perspective of climate change due to dependence on both biotic and abiotic conditions for their survival. Climate conditions, such as temperature, humidity and rainfall have been reported as predominant factors influencing the life cycle, activity and fecundity of tick populations [7]. The incidence and geographic distribution of vector-borne diseases are anticipated to change as a result [8].…”

Bioactive Metabolites from the Endophytic Fungus <em>Aspergillus sp. </em>SPH2

“…However, this is the first report on the ixodicidal effects of mellein (1). Ticks are the second most important group of disease vectors after mosquitoes because they can transmit a great variety of pathogens to human and animals and are in expansion due to climate change [52]. For example, Hyalomma ticks, vectors of the Crimea Congo Haemorragic Fever virus, have spread from their original distribution (African and Mediterranean environments) to other European countries, becoming an increasing public health concern [53,54,55,56].…”