An integrative approach to ancient agricultural terraces and forms of dependency: the case of Cutamalla in the prehispanic Andes

Abstract

This paper presents an integrative and interdisciplinary approach to the study of ancient agricultural terraces and food production systems. Our approach consists of (1) a resource dependency theoretical framework and (2) the application of a variety of archaeological and geoscientific methods, including archaeological and geomorphological surveys, archaeological excavations, drone surveys, mapping based on satellite imagery and high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs), geographic information system (GIS) applications, soil testing, phytolith analysis, radiocarbon dating, and calculations of food supply capacity and labor requirements. We apply these to the prehispanic site of Cutamalla (3,300 m asl) in the southern Peruvian Andes, which serves as an ideal and pioneering case study. Previous research has focused primarily on the settlement of Cutamalla, particularly through large-scale archaeological excavations, but less attention has been paid to the extensive farming terraces surrounding the settlement and the close relationship between agricultural and settlement activities. By analyzing both the terrace and settlement levels, we take a new perspective and introduce the term agricultural terrace-settlement system for such complexes. Our results show that the residential occupation of Cutamalla and the use of the surrounding farming terraces coincided: the agricultural terrace-settlement system was intensively used for a relatively short period of about 200 years (~250–40 BCE) during the Formative Late Paracas and transitional Initial Nasca periods, long before the famous Inka terrace agricultural systems. There is no evidence of reoccupation of the site and subsequent reuse of the agricultural system. Our data also document the large extent of agricultural terraces around Cutamalla (221 ha) and that maize was likely a major crop grown there. Finally, we place these findings in their broader socio-economic and ecological context. Cutamalla was an important regional center and economic hub during a very dynamic period characterized by significant population growth and increased violence. Not only a more humid climate, but probably also forced collective labor were cornerstones of substantial agricultural production in Cutamalla and the region.

Reply on RC2

“…Typical sites for these early terrace systems are usually those that maintained constant and high soil moisture during construction and use, particularly those exhibiting exceptional agro-ecological soil quality, as found in the soil province of Phaeozems. The Late Paracas and Initial Nasca periods were not only highly dynamic with significant population growth but also experienced more humid environmental conditions (Mächtle, 2007;Schittek et al, 2015), facilitating the widespread adoption of these agricultural practices in the region (Mader et al, 2024). Unfortunately, the conservation status of these old terraces is often poor due to extended periods of disuse.…”

Reply on RC1

“…The mobility of people, llamas, and commodities was an important component of cultural and economic development (Mader et al, 2021;Beresford-Jones et al, 2023). Archaeological and geoscientific data indicate that a main function of prehispanic highland settlements and their related extensive terrace systems was agricultural production (Mader et al, 2024).…”

“…Samples were pretreated using the acid-alkali-acid method to remove contamination by carbonates and humic acids. The results were calibrated in OxCal 4.4 (Bronk Ramsey, 2009), using a site-specific mixed curve of SHCal20 (Hogg et al, 2020) and IntCal20 (Reimer et al, 2020) that reflects modern mixtures of air from the Northern and Southern Hemispheres at Cutamalla (Mader et al, 2024), following recently published methods (Ancapichún et al, 2022;Marsh et al, 2023).…”

“…The absence of identified irrigation canals suggests rainfed agriculture. The architecture of the agricultural terraces in Cutamalla is notably similar and simple: the terrace walls with medium height were constructed using fairly large stones and boulders (up to 0.5 m in diameter), representing a typical architectural pattern of Formative agricultural terraces in the region (Mader et al, 2024).…”

“…Typical sites for these early terrace systems are usually those that maintained constant and high soil moisture during construction and use, particularly those exhibiting exceptional agro-ecological soil quality, as found in the soil province of Phaeozems. The Late Paracas and Initial Nasca periods were not only highly dynamic with significant population growth but also experienced more humid environmental conditions (Mächtle, 2007;Schittek et al, 2015), facilitating the widespread adoption of these agricultural practices in the region (Mader et al, 2024). Unfortunately, the conservation status of these old terraces is often poor due to extended periods of disuse.…”