An overview of the detection of serotonin and dopamine with graphene-based sensors

Graphene and its Derivatives for Bone Tissue Engineering: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of Graphene-Based Scaffolds, Membranes and Coatings

“…As one of the most promising emerging materials, graphene has been widely explored in the fields of regenerative medicine ( Kolanthai et al, 2018 ; Liu et al, 2019 ; Cojocaru et al, 2021 ). Nevertheless, there are still much room for improvement to overcome existing challenges for its application in bone regeneration ( Cernat et al, 2020 ; Nimbalkar and Kim, 2020 ; Bruschi et al, 2021 ). In spite of remarkable properties, it is difficult for pristine graphene to form three-dimensional scaffolds on its own.…”

Using Graphene-Based Biosensors to Detect Dopamine for Efficient Parkinson’s Disease Diagnostics

“…Considering the 2D defects and the active edge sites of graphene ink, it can be an ideal candidate for printable and low-cost DA sensing devices/systems. Butler et al developed ultrasensitive graphene ink which enabled facile post-deposition annealing of electrochemical sensor for DA detection with the lowest detection limit of 1 nM [21,22]. Furthermore, by increasing the affinity of the cationic DA form to the materials' surface, electroactive oxygen groups in graphene materials play a significant role in its detection [27].…”

“…Therefore, surface modifications of the graphene nanosheets, made to improve its functionalization, must, to be effective, reduce these unfavorable effects while also providing enhancement of the electrocatalysis of graphene, increasing the surface area, and improving the conductivity of the composite materials. Moreover, the biofunctionalization aims not only to improve the analytical performance characteristics, such as sensitivity and selectivity, but also to enable miniaturization of the diagnostic platform to make it convenient for the analysis of real and complex matrices, and to make it able to perform monitoring in real time, as well as in in vivo testing [21]. Wang et al developed organic electrochemical transistors (OECT) for accurate sensing of DA based on the alternative current (AC) measurements [26], as shown in Figure 3.…”

“…Thus, designing sensors for the DA monitoring in biological samples, such as routine clinical ones, is challenging since electrochemically active compounds commonly found in body fluids, such as AA, uric acid (UA), and glucose (Glu), constantly interact with each other during detection due to their similar oxidation potentials. Moreover, the present macromolecules, including proteins, can non-specifically adsorb on the electrode surface, thus hindering the electron transfer rate [ 21 ]. Thus, the development of electrochemical methods for the analysis of DA in a complex matrix must address all these possible interactions to enable its successful DA detection in a simple, rapid, and highly selective way.…”

“…Furthermore, by increasing the affinity of the cationic DA form to the materials’ surface, electroactive oxygen groups in graphene materials play a significant role in its detection [ 27 ]. Graphene can also be easily modified with various nanomaterials to attain an enhanced catalytic effect [ 21 ]. However, the abovementioned advantages of graphene are limited due to the strong π–π stacking and van der Waals interactions.…”