“…Non-device-related infections also have a significant impact on health problems. Dental plaque ( Rabe et al., 2022 ), urinary tract infections ( Singh et al., 2022 ), cystic fibrosis ( Vandeplassche et al., 2020 ), otitis media ( Bair et al., 2020 ), infective endocarditis ( Han and Poma, 2022 ), tonsillitis ( Klagisa et al., 2022 ), periodontitis ( Prado et al., 2022 ), necrotizing fasciitis ( Grier et al., 2021 ), osteomyelitis ( Huang et al., 2022 ), infective kidney stones ( Fayez Hassan et al., 2021 ), chronic inflammatory diseases ( Wu et al., 2015 ), bacterial vaginitis ( Arroyo-Moreno et al., 2022 ), and bladder infections ( Mirzaei et al., 2020 ) are all examples of non-device-related bacterial biofilm infections.…”