“…Whereas physics engine applications involve both individual objects and particle assemblages, DEM has primarily focused on modeling mechanical behavior of particle assemblages since it was introduced (Cundall and Strack, 1979). Modern DEM applications include particle transportation in mining (Pezo et al, 2015), particle compaction in material science (Martin et al, 2003), fertilizer spreading in agriculture (Coetzee and Lombard, 2011), soil-tool interaction (Asaf et al, 2007;Catanoso et al, 2020), particle mixer and grinder machinery (Alian et al, 2015;Cleary, 2015), rocky slopes in geoengineering (Chuhan et al, 1997), dynamic analysis of infrastructures (Çaktı et al, 2016;Mehrotra and DeJong, 2017;Papantonopoulos et al, 2002), and fault ruptures Bray, 2018, 2022;Chiama et al, 2023).…”