Anatomy and Physiology of the Breast

Johnson, Martin

doi:10.1007/978-3-540-69743-5_1

Cited by 15 publications

(11 citation statements)

References 282 publications

(265 reference statements)

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“…The prevalence of mastalgia in the present study was also higher in nulliparous participants compared with parous participants. The breast reaches its most differentiated status following parturition40 41 and investigating the variation in breast composition at different life stages and the association of composition with mastalgia may also provide further insight into the aetiology and management of mastalgia.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The experience of breast pain (mastalgia) in female runners of the 2012 London Marathon and its effect on exercise behaviour

et al. 2013

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Mastalgia was experienced by a third of marathon runners and was found to be related to breast size which has previously been unreported. The link between exercise and mastalgia has yet to be established; however, this study identified that exercise was the most prevalent factor in mastalgia occurrence which may have implications for its management. The number of participants who took no measures to relieve their mastalgia, or resorted to pain medication, highlights the importance and significance of research into exercise-related mastalgia.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The experience of breast pain (mastalgia) in female runners of the 2012 London Marathon and its effect on exercise behaviour

et al. 2013

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“…The presence of rich sympathetic adrenergic innervation and smooth muscle contraction mediators (eg, neuropeptide Y, galanin, and somatostatin) suggests that these systems have a role in NE. The presence of abundant amounts of smooth muscles inside the structure suggests that the contraction of these smooth muscles contributes to erection (Masters and Johnson, 1966; Montagna, 1970, 1974; Birkenfeld and Kase, 1994; Eriksson et al, 1996a; Uvnäs‐Moberg and Eriksson, 1996; Franke‐Radowiecka et al, 2002; Franke‐Radowiecka and Wasowicz, 2002; Levin, 2006; Gartner and Hiatt, 2007; Walker, 2009; Johnson, 2010); however, when NE dynamics, smooth muscle morphology, and innervation are considered, these interpretations should be reevaluated.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…According to information obtained from current sources, abundant smooth muscle is present in the structure of the NAC. Although it has been stated that erection occurs via the stimulation of sympathetic adrenergic nerves that innervate the NAC and the contraction of the smooth muscles, no comparative study has been conducted to explain erection physiology (Montagna, 1970, 1974; Birkenfeld and Kase, 1994; Eriksson et al, 1996a; Uvnäs‐Moberg and Eriksson, 1996; Levin, 2006; Gartner and Hiatt, 2007; Walker, 2009; Johnson, 2010).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Nitric Oxide May Mediate Nipple Erection

Tezer

Şanlı

Asoğlu

et al. 2012

Journal of Andrology

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The nipple is a specialized structure that can become erect by cold, sexual arousal, breast-feeding, or other tactile stimulations, which can induce the milk ejection reflex and sexual arousal because of intense sensory innervation. The studies that have been conducted thus far to identify the mechanism of nipple erection (NE) are not sufficient. It has been stated that NE occurs via activation of the sympathetic nervous system and smooth muscle contraction. The purposes of this study were to investigate the existence of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in the nipple-areola complex (NAC) to explain the NE mechanism. Considering that smooth muscle relaxation might be effective in NE, endothelial and neuronal NOS expression and localization were investigated via immunohistochemical methods on sagittal sections from 17 human NACs. The results of this study indicate that eNOS is expressed in the vascular endothelium, ductal epithelium, and smooth muscles, whereas nNOS is expressed in the neural fibers, smooth muscles, ductal epithelium, and vascular endothelium in the NAC. Sinusoidal spaces with endothelial layers similar to those found in penile cavernosal tissue are not found in the NAC. Various mediators are known to affect the function of the NAC smooth muscles; however, this study demonstrates that enzymes (eNOS and nNOS) that synthesize nitric oxide are expressed in the NAC.Key words: Breast physiology, breast-feeding, female sexuality, nitric oxide synthase.J Androl 2012;33:805-810 S tudies concerning sexual function and dysfunction have been predominantly conducted on male sexual health. Smooth muscles and adrenergic innervation are present in the penis, which is the most important erectile organ; however, erection occurs through the relaxation rather than the contraction of these muscles. It is known that nitric oxide (NO) is the most important mediator of erection (Burnett et al, 1992;Rajfer et al, 1992;Lowenstein et al, 1994).Although the number of studies regarding female sexual physiology and pathophysiology have increased in recent years, explanations for female sexual function and dysfunction remain unclear.The female sexual response cycle consists of the desire, arousal (excitement), orgasm, and resolution phases, wherein the primary changes in female sexual organs occur during the arousal phase. Because the primary organs of female sexuality primarily include the vagina and clitoris, most studies have investigated the function and dysfunction of these organs; however, changes in other organs also occur during the arousal phase. The arousal phase of the female sexual response cycle involves genital mechanisms, such as clitoral, labial, and vaginal engorgement, as well as nongenital peripheral mechanisms, such as increases in body secretions, cutaneous vasodilation, increases in breast volume, strained and prominent areola, and nipple erection (NE). Interestingly, the nipple has dual functions in the arousal phase. NE can occur by sexual arousal, and stimulation of the nipple can induce and incre...

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“…In humans, breast enlargement is one of the first visible signs of pregnancy, usually detectable as early as during the second month. Breast growth rate is extremely fast‐during the first trimester the number of alveoli/lobule in mammary glands increases tenfold (Jahnson 2010).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Unexpected changes in maternal breast size during pregnancy in relation to infant sex: An evolutionary interpretation

Galbarczyk

2011

American J Hum Biol

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The observed difference is surprising in the light of studies reporting that mothers of male infants produced milk that had greater energy content. However, breast size alone does not determine the quality and quantity of produced milk. It is suggested that the larger difference in breast size for mothers of female infants results from a trade-off between direct energy allocations to the growing fetus and to breast enlargement. Perhaps, as in other primates maintaining sexually attractive attributes during pregnancy, early breast enlargement in women is a primary sexual stimulus. The ultimate function of early breast enlargement may function to ensure greater involvement from partners, which is especially important to mothers expecting daughters, who might be in poorer nutritional condition, as predicted by Trivers-Willard hypothesis.

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Anatomy and Physiology of the Breast

Cited by 15 publications

References 282 publications

The experience of breast pain (mastalgia) in female runners of the 2012 London Marathon and its effect on exercise behaviour

The experience of breast pain (mastalgia) in female runners of the 2012 London Marathon and its effect on exercise behaviour

Nitric Oxide May Mediate Nipple Erection

Unexpected changes in maternal breast size during pregnancy in relation to infant sex: An evolutionary interpretation

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