Ancient genomes reveal complex genetic history of an international metropolis at Kublai Khan's Upper Capital (Xanadu)

Abstract

Objectives: As the political, economic, military, and cultural center of the early Yuan Dynasty, Xanadu attracted people from all over the world. It was thriving and prosperous, composed of residents with different customs and religious beliefs from different social strata. Genetic analysis of Xanadu's residents provides a valuable approach for inferring processes of population movement and exchange during the Yuan period.Materials and Methods: Nine skeletons from Zhenzishan cemetery, the largest cemetery near Xanadu, were selected for the whole-genome shotgun sequencing and capture sequencing of the nonrecombining region of the Y chromosome, three of whom were identified as likely being of European descent based on cranio-facial morphology.Results: There were nine mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes (F1a1, D5b1,