Androgen changes and flexible rutting behaviour in male giraffes

Seeber, Peter A.; Duncan, Patrick; Fritz, Hervé; Ganswindt, André

doi:10.1098/rsbl.2013.0396

Cited by 22 publications

(29 citation statements)

References 20 publications

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“…That sexual behavior is in some way related to an increase in fAM concentrations in adult bulls is supported by our data showing that in mixed sex groups, the older adult giraffe bulls (Ad1) had a further increase in fAM levels when sexually active. A similar finding was presented in a recent study on giraffes, where the oldest bulls also showed significantly higher fAM levels, when sexually active (Seeber et al, 2013). For a number of species, times of sexual activity are often correlated with elevated androgen levels, as for example shown in bison (Mooring et al, 2004) or African and Asian elephant (Ganswindt et al, 2005;Ghosal et al, 2013), with already minor changes in fAM levels being related to male sexual activity in elephants (Rasmussen et al, 2008).…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 86%

“…A male was considered to be sexually active if it emitted any of the following behaviors towards a female: courtship behavior, investigation of the females anogenital region, urine testing, mating and mate guarding (Seeber et al, 2013). Conversely, a bull was considered to be sexually inactive if he did not show any of these behaviors.…”

Section: Social and Behavioral Datamentioning

confidence: 99%

“…After centrifugation for 10 min. at 1500 g, supernatants were aliquoted and stored at -20˚C until assay procedure (Fieß et al, 1999;Seeber et al, 2013).…”

Section: Fecal Sample Collection Extraction and Assaymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Fecal androgen metabolite (fAM) concentrations were determined using an enzyme immunoassay first described by Palme and Möstl (1993). This assay has previously been used to reliably monitor fAM alterations in giraffe (Seeber et al 2013) and other mammals (Ganswindt et al, 2002). The assay procedure followed established protocols (Ganswindt et al, 2002).…”

Section: Fecal Sample Collection Extraction and Assaymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Bercovitch and Berry, 2010;Dagg, 1971;Pratt and Anderson, 1982). It has also been shown that androgen levels in male giraffes are not only age dependent, but also show a seasonal pattern and appear to be linked to sexual activity (Seeber et al, 2013). This seasonal pattern in androgen levels seem to also be influenced by differences in group structure occurrence found between winter and summer months (Wolf et al, resubmitted).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Age and socially related changes in fecal androgen metabolite concentrations in free-ranging male giraffes

Wolf

Schaebs

Bennett

et al. 2018

General and Comparative Endocrinology

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In many mammal species, androgen levels in males are elevated during periods of mating activity, often to facilitate aggressive behavior between males over access to fertile females. However, this pattern might be less obvious in species with a rather low male-male aggression rate, or in those that are not strictly seasonal breeders. A complex social structure, as well as additional social and environmental factors, might add more to the complexity. Here, we applied a non-invasive method to monitor fecal androgen metabolite (fAM) levels in free-ranging giraffe bulls over a period of months to examine longitudinal patterns of androgen metabolite concentrations in relation to observed male sexual behavior in different age classes. Giraffes are non-seasonal breeders, living in a fission-fusion social system and males show a roaming strategy to search for fertile females. Our results show that season has an impact on fAM levels in free-ranging giraffes, with respective steroid concentrations being higher in summer. In the presence of females, fAM levels of bulls are significantly higher compared to when found in all-male groups, with old adult bulls showing the highest fAM levels. In contrast, young adult bulls have overall slightly higher fAM levels compared to old adult bulls when residing in all male groups. Sexual behavior increases fAM levels only in old adult bulls.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 86%

Section: Social and Behavioral Datamentioning

confidence: 99%

“…After centrifugation for 10 min. at 1500 g, supernatants were aliquoted and stored at -20˚C until assay procedure (Fieß et al, 1999;Seeber et al, 2013).…”

Section: Fecal Sample Collection Extraction and Assaymentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Fecal Sample Collection Extraction and Assaymentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 3 more Smart Citations

Age and socially related changes in fecal androgen metabolite concentrations in free-ranging male giraffes

Wolf

Schaebs

Bennett

et al. 2018

General and Comparative Endocrinology

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Immunocontraception of male and female giraffes using the GnRH vaccine Improvac®

Schwarzenberger

Krawinkel²,

Jeserschek

et al. 2021

Zoo Biology

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The aim of this study was to develop protocols for contraception in both sexes of giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) by using the GnRH vaccine Improvac®. We evaluated the success of immunization by analyzing fecal reproductive hormone metabolites in female (n = 20) and male (n = 9) giraffes. Endocrine analysis provided the basis for the successful immunization protocol, as well as for assessing long‐term effects. Reliable reduction of fecal steroid metabolites to baseline levels in female giraffes was achieved with three, and in males with four or five injections at 4‐week intervals. Effective booster injections were administered at 2‐month intervals in the first year of treatment and at three to 4‐month intervals in the following years. In addition to endocrine analysis, we determined vaccination efficacy in bulls by assessing testicular atrophy. Long‐term (>2 years) use in females was often accompanied by prolonged periods of persistent corpus luteum activity, although normal cycles were not observed. Problems might occur with reversibility, because in a few males and females, even after more than 2 years since treatment had been stopped, fecal hormone metabolites have not returned to pretreatment levels. The results are somewhat ambiguous, as reproduction can be suppressed by use of Improvac®, but the question of reversibility remains unsolved.

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Factors affecting captive female giraffe stress response: Male presence, small enclosure, and low temperature

et al. 2023

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To improve animal welfare based on suitable social housing conditions, it is important to understand the factors that trigger high‐stress responses. Wild giraffes live in a fission–fusion society and males and females are rarely in the same herd for a long period. The captive condition of belonging to a herd with the same individuals for months or years is uncommon in nature. To understand the effect of male presence on female stress levels, fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) levels and social interactions in two captive female giraffes were investigated. Additionally, the effect of enclosure size and temperature on fGCM level and social interactions were examined. The results showed no significant difference in the fGCM levels of females based on male presence. The frequency of agonistic behavior by the dominant female toward the subordinate female was significantly increased when a male was present. The subordinate female was significantly less likely to approach the dominant female and showed decreased affiliative and agonistic interactions toward the dominant female when a male was present. The frequencies of agonistic interactions between females were higher in the small enclosure regardless of male presence. Low temperature triggered higher fGCM levels and increased agonistic interaction in an aged female. The findings of this study suggest that these multiple factors should be considered individually to promote the welfare of captive giraffes.

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Androgen changes and flexible rutting behaviour in male giraffes

Cited by 22 publications

References 20 publications

Age and socially related changes in fecal androgen metabolite concentrations in free-ranging male giraffes

Age and socially related changes in fecal androgen metabolite concentrations in free-ranging male giraffes

Immunocontraception of male and female giraffes using the GnRH vaccine Improvac®

Factors affecting captive female giraffe stress response: Male presence, small enclosure, and low temperature

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