Antecedents and Consequences of Perceived Personal Gender Discrimination: A Study of Solicitors in Hong Kong

Abstract

Informed by social identity theory, we developed a model to examine the antecedents and consequences of perceptions of personal gender discrimination. In the model, gender, gender identity, and perceived gender bias against women are considered as salient predictors of perceived personal gender discrimination, and organizational commitment and intentions to leave are considered as the outcome variables. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the data collected from a sample of practicing solicitors in Hong Kong. We found that (a) women perceived more personal gender discrimination and gender bias against women than did men, (b) gender moderated the relationship between perceived gender bias against women and perceived personal gender discrimination, (c) the positive effect of gender bias against women on gender discrimination was more strongly positive for women than for men, and (d) perceived personal gender discrimination affected organizational commitment and intentions to leave. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. . Women perceive more gender discrimination than do men, and these perceptions are associated with lower feelings of power and prestige on the job, more work conflict, more hours spent on paid work activities (Gutek et al., 1996), low self-esteem, increased depression and anxiety (Foster, 2000;Kobrynowicz & Branscombe, 1997), and perceptions of disempowerment (Foster, Arnt, & Honkola, 2004). Perceived gender bias against women is also important as it relates to issues such as equal employment opportunity and affirmative action.Few researchers, however, have addressed in one conceptual model organizational commitment and intentions to leave as consequences of perceived personal gender discrimination and perceived gender bias against women. Our study fills this gap, as we used social identity theory to develop and test a conceptual model of antecedents (i.e., gender, gender identity, and perceived gender bias against women) and consequences (i.e., organizational commitment and intentions to leave) of perceived personal gender discrimination. Our approach has several strengths. First, our application of social identity theory recognizes that although demographic variables are useful in explaining employee perceptions of and responses to discrimination and bias, they alone are not adequate. An individual's psychological investment in his or her gender category (i.e., his or her gender identity) is another important predictor. Second, we examined the potential costs associated with perceived personal gender discrimination in the form of reduced employee commitment and increased intentions to leave the organization. Third, we used an intergroup approach to gender relations to develop separate models for women and men. The two models are not invariant in that certain relationships are expected to be gender specific. The point of our analyses was to test for certain gender differences based on theory and previous research.

Perceptions of supervisor support: Resolving paradoxical patterns across gender and race

“…To measure perceived climate of gender inequity, we used three items on a 5-point Likerttype scale, modified from Sanchez and Brock's (1996) scale and used in other studies examining this variable (Foley, Ngo, & Loi, 2006). The three items are as follows: 'At work, others make jokes or negative commentaries about women'; 'At work, I get the impression that being female may be a limitation'; and 'At work, I feel that others exclude women from some activities'.…”

When Searching Hurts: The Role of Information Search in Reactions to Gender Discrimination

“…Previous research has addressed different factors that may impede the perception of gender discrimination. These examined the costs of attributions to discrimination (Sechrist and Delmar 2009), the importance of schema activation in labelling organizational incidents as sexual harassment (Magley and Shupe 2005), the effects of sexist attitudes, personal beliefs, and gender identities of men and women in perceiving discrimination (Cameron 2001;Foley et al 2006) or protesting against it (Foster et al 2004), and the long-term consequences of coping with discrimination for well-being (Foster 2009). In the present research, we build on the observation made by Crosby and colleagues (1986), that failure to perceive gender discrimination at the individual level may be due to lack of group-level information (see also Rutte et al 1994).…”

Perceived Ingroup and Outgroup Preference: A Longitudinal Causal Investigation

“…According to Cox's (1994) interactional model of cultural diversity, the diversity climate of an organization affects individual affective and attitudinal reactions, including satisfaction. Past studies have indicated that perceptions of organizational prejudice and discrimination against one's ingroup are negatively associated with organizational attitudes including job satisfaction and organizational commitment (e.g., Ensher, Grant‐Vallone, & Donaldson, 2001; Foley, Ngo, & Loi, 2006; Foley, Ngo, & Wong, 2005; Gutek, Cohen, & Tsui, 1996; Redman & Snape, 2006). According to relative deprivation theory, when individuals feel they have less than they rightfully deserve, they are likely to feel and express dissatisfaction (Davis, 1959).…”

“…Several past studies have indicated that perceptions of organizational prejudice or discrimination against one's ingroup are negatively associated with organizational attitudes including job satisfaction and organizational commitment (e.g., Ensher et al, 2001; Foley et al, 2006; Foley et al, 2005; Gutek et al, 1996; Redman & Snape, 2006). In most cases, these researchers have discussed this relationship implicitly or explicitly in terms of perceived prejudice having a causal effect on organizational attitudes, as we have above.…”