Antifouling paint biocides (Irgarol 1051 and diuron) in the selected ports of Peninsular Malaysia: occurrence, seasonal variation, and ecological risk assessment

Antifouling Activity of Halogenated Compounds Derived from the Red Alga Sphaerococcus coronopifolius: Potential for the Development of Environmentally Friendly Solutions

“…A series of chromatographic separations of the CH 2 Cl 2 / MeOH extract of the red alga S. coronopifolius, collected in Agios Giannis bay off Parga in Greece, resulted in the isolation of 14 diterpenes (1-14) and one sesquiterpene (15) as the major constituents. By comparison of their spectroscopic and physical characteristics with those reported in the literature, the isolated metabolites were identified as bromosphaerol (1) [33,34], 12S-hydroxybromosphaerol (2) [35,36], 12R-hydroxy-bromosphaerol (3) [36,37], sphaerococcinol A (4) [38,39], 14R-hydroxy-13,14-dihydro-sphaerococcinol A (5) [36], 8-methoxy-dihydrosphaerococcenol (6) [40], 2S-hydroxy-isobromosphaerol (7) [41], bromosphaerol B (8) [36], bromosphaerodiol (9) [42], 1S-hydroperoxy-12S-hydroxy-bromosphaerodiol B (10) [36], 1S-hydroperoxy-12R-hydroxy-bromosphaerodiol B (11) [36], 1S-hydroxy-1,2-dihydrobromosphaerol (12) [41,43], bromotetrasphaerol (13) [37], 12R-hydroxy-bromocorodienol (14) [44] and allo-aromadendrene (15) [45] (Figure 1).…”

“…Unfortunately, these two chemicals appeared highly toxic for aquatic organisms and have been proven to bioaccumulate through the food chain and be persistent in the environment and as such were banned in 2008 [10]. Since then, TBT-based paints were replaced by new formulations containing copper or biocides, such as diuron and irgarol [10][11][12][13]. To increase their activity, inorganic zinc is often added to the formulations [14].…”