INTRODUCTIONThis review will briefly consider the impact on cognitive development and function, of variation in intake (insufficient or excessive) of the macronutrients, protein, carbohydrate and fat, and, where its effects can be separated, energy, over the human lifespan. For each macronutrient, attention will be paid to what is known about the role of specific forms for cognition and brain function. This review is mainly concerned with evidence in human beings, and emphasis is placed on highlighting current understanding of the evidence, rather than an extensive review of the literature.All the macronutrients can provide energy, albeit with differing priorities and target organs, as well as carbon for structural functions, and many forms are fundamental to cellular processes governing growth, signalling and survival (Mann and Truswell, 2012). For the brain specifically, carbohydrates provide glucose as the primary energy source, amino acids in proteins provide the precursors for synthesis of neurotransmitters and create their receptors, while fatty acids provide the structural basis of neuronal cell membranes. These properties point to ways in which macronutrient intake may be crucial for optimal brain function.Firstly, the importance of adequate intake of energy and protein, both for the pregnant mother and thus the intrauterine nutritional environment for the foetus, and for the neonate and infant child, will be considered. Breastfeeding will briefly be compared to formula feeding, as the quantity and quality of fats and protein may have implications for cognitive development.Next, the review will discuss evidence for the benefits of breakfast, and other meal types, for cognitive function in school children, adolescents and adults, comparing effects of different forms of breakfast, including the nature of the carbohydrates and the glycaemic index of the meal. For adolescents and adults, there is extensive literature on the effects of glucose loads on cognition, particularly memory and attention: this literature will be summarised, and the strengths and weaknesses of the evidence, and its implications, discussed.PROCEEDINGS OF THE LATVIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Section B, Vol. 67 (2013), No. 4/5 (685/686), pp. 303-314. DOI: 10.2478/prolas-2013
EFFECTS OF ENERGY AND MACRONUTRIENT INTAKE ON COGNITIVE FUNCTION THROUGH THE LIFESPAN Edward Leigh GibsonDepartment of Psychology, University of Roehampton, London, UK l.gibson@roehampton.ac.uk
Communicated by Valdis PîrâgsThis paper reviews effects of both insufficient and excessive energy and macronutrient intake on cognition over the lifespan, including the prenatal period, infancy, childhood, and adulthood. In the brain, the hippocampus is particularly vulnerable to both protein malnutrition and energy undernutrition in utero or infancy, resulting in impaired neurogenesis and deficits in memory and spatial learning, reduced anxiety and increased impulsivity, reflected in impairments of neurotransmitter systems. Conversely, higher protein intake is associated with i...