Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence Potential of Bacterial Species from Captive Birds of Prey—Consequences of Falconry for Public Health

Abstract

Falconry has been practiced for thousands of years and is nowadays frequently employed in activities such as pest control, hunting, falcon racing, and environmental education. Antimicrobial resistance levels have risen in the past years, constituting an emerging global problem with a direct impact on public health. Besides both topics being studied on their own, information on the role of captive birds of prey in the potential dissemination of virulence factors and antimicrobial resistance determinants of bacterial origin is scarce. Multidrug-resistant bacteria, including some extended-spectrum β-lactamase producers, have already been found in several captive birds of prey. Most of the virulence factors found in captive raptors’ bacteria were related to adherence and invasion abilities, toxin production, and flagella. These birds may acquire these bacteria through contaminated raw food and the exchange of animals between keepers and zoological facilities. More studies are required to confirm the role of captive birds of prey in disseminating resistant bacteria and on the routes of interaction between synanthropic species and humans.

Detection of Salmonella Reservoirs in Birds of Prey Hosted in an Italian Wildlife Centre: Molecular and Antimicrobial Resistance Characterisation

“…Captivity plays a fundamental role in influencing the oral and intestinal microbiome of hosted birds of prey and is also associated with high rates of antibiotic resistance, compared to free-living birds [ 38 ]. This change can already occur after a month of direct contact between animals and humans, and the diet, especially if based on raw food, represents the first determining causal factor [ 39 , 40 , 41 ].…”

“…This change can already occur after a month of direct contact between animals and humans, and the diet, especially if based on raw food, represents the first determining causal factor [ 39 , 40 , 41 ]. Some studies have shown that birds of prey fed poultry meat develop a wider range of Gram-negative bacterial flora [ 38 ]; in particular, a study on falcons has shown that the diets most commonly fed to these birds increase the levels of Salmonella in the intestinal flora [ 42 ].…”

“…To avoid the transmission of Salmonella and other bacteria from hosted birds to humans, it is essential to train animal care personnel on the potential zoonotic risks of these pathogens, through appropriate adoption of adequate hygiene and personal protection measures. Increasing biosecurity is certainly the most effective method to prevent outbreaks of infectious diseases within captivity facilities [ 38 ].…”