Antimicrobials Used in Backyard and Commercial Poultry and Swine Farms in the Philippines: A Qualitative Pilot Study

Abstract

Chicken and pork are the most frequently consumed meat products in the Philippines. Swine and poultry are reared in either commercial farms (CMf) or backyard farms (BYf); the latter production system is relatively common and essential to food security in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) such as the Philippines. Similar to resource-limited LMICs, antimicrobial use (AMU) surveillance has not yet been established; thus, AMU in food animals is a knowledge gap in understanding the emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in zoonotic foodborne bacteria in the country. This qualitative AMU pilot study aims to describe the antimicrobial active ingredients (AAIs) used and associated AMU practices (e.g., source of AAIs and informed AMU decisions) by poultry and swine CMf and BYf in the Philippines. Ninety-three farms across four regions in the Philippines voluntarily provided AMU information as part of a larger biosecurity and good practices study. The percentage of farms using AAI over the total number of farms was the metric used to describe AMU. In total, there were 30 AAIs used (CMf: n =27 and BYf: n = 13); per farm, the number of AAIs used ranged from 1 to 7. The spectrum of AAIs was more diverse in swine ( n = 24) compared to poultry ( n = 18). Enrofloxacin was the most frequently reported AAI in poultry (33%) and swine (36%) farms. Respiratory diseases were the most frequently reported reason for AMU in both species. Between production systems, significant differences were observed in the percentage of farms using amoxicillin (27% CMf vs. 3% BYf), colistin (17% CMf vs. 3% BYf), and oxytetracycline (12% CMf vs. 39% BYf). In terms of AMU practices, of important concern was the over-the-counter access of AAIs at retail outlets and the limited veterinary oversight in BYf. Our data indicated that antimicrobials critically important for human medicine are frequently used in poultry and swine farms in the Philippines. This study can inform the development of guidelines for curbing AMR through prudent AMU and serves as a reference point for AMU surveillance capacity development in the Philippines.

Antibiotic Use in Broiler Poultry Farms in Kathmandu Valley of Nepal: Which Antibiotics and Why?

“…Antibiotic resistance to colistin would render this life-saving medication ineffective for those with sepsis and pneumonia in intensive care units, including those with severe COVID-19 disease super infected with multidrug resistant bacteria [ 15 ]. The levels of tylosin and colistin use in Nepal are almost double to triple that seen in other Asian countries like the Philippines and Vietnam [ 16 , 17 ]. In a survey of 39 poultry farms in the Philippines, colistin use was 13%, while for tylosin this was only 8% [ 16 ].…”

“…The levels of tylosin and colistin use in Nepal are almost double to triple that seen in other Asian countries like the Philippines and Vietnam [ 16 , 17 ]. In a survey of 39 poultry farms in the Philippines, colistin use was 13%, while for tylosin this was only 8% [ 16 ]. Similarly, in a survey of 102 poultry farms in Vietnam [ 17 ], colistin use was 25.8%, while tylosin was 13.6%.…”

Knowledge and Practices on Antibiotic Use and Antibiotic Resistance Among Smallholder Pig Farmers in Timor-Leste

“…Studies investigating the knowledge and practices of antibiotic use and resistance among farmers have been conducted in some LMICs (7,26). These studies mostly showed that antibiotic use by farmers was high despite a poor level of knowledge (27)(28)(29)(30), and have been important for guiding interventions to promote prudent use of antibiotics to slow the emergence of resistance (31,32). Such studies have never been conducted in Timor-Leste and would help characterise antibiotic knowledge and use at the farm level so appropriate strategies can be developed to avoid overuse and misuse, and facilitate implementation of the National Action Plan for Antimicrobial Resistance.…”

Reducing the Risk of Transmission of Critical Antimicrobial Resistance Determinants From Contaminated Pork Products to Humans in South-East Asia

“…Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacterial species and strains is a critical global threat, and has been monitored in animals, humans and the environment through international collaborations aimed at AMR reduction (Gerbin, 2014;Lechner et al, 2020;Singh et al, 2021). The main factors contributing to the emergence of AMR are overuse and misuse of antimicrobials, and the lack of quality control of antimicrobials and active pharmaceutical ingredients in the market (Simba et al, 2016;Tangcharoensathien et al, 2018;Barroga et al, 2020). Also, the multi-faceted nature of the problem includes misconceptions about antibiotic types and AMR; lack of diagnostic facilities; limited availability of alternatives to antibiotics as a means to establish antibiotic-free farms; and insufficient training of veterinarians on AMR and antibiotic prescribing (Lekagul et al, 2021).…”