Application of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) to Elucidate the Connections among Smell, Obesity with Related Metabolic Alterations, and Eating Habit in Patients with Weight Excess

Abstract

Obesity is a severe health problem linked to an increased risk of comorbidity and mortality and its etiopathogenesis includes genetic, epigenetic, microbiota composition, and environmental factors, such as dietary habits. The olfactory system plays an important role in controlling food intake and meal size, influencing body weight and energy balance. This study aims to identify the connection between olfactory function and clinical and nutritional aspects related to weight excess in a group of 68 patients with overweight or obesity. All participants underwent the evaluation of olfactory function, anthropometric data (weight, height, BMI, waist circumference), clinical data (hypertension, disglycemia, dyslipidemia, metabolic syndrome), and adherence to the Mediterranean diet (Mediterranean Diet Score). A fourth-generation artificial neural network data mining approach was used to uncover trends and subtle associations between variables. Olfactory tests showed that 65% of patients presented hyposmia. A negative correlation was found between olfactory scores and systolic blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose, and triglycerides levels, but a positive correlation was found between olfactory scores and the Mediterranean diet score. The methodology of artificial neural networks and the semantic connectivity map “Auto-Contractive Map” highlighted the underlying scheme of the connections between the variables considered. In particular, hyposmia was linked to obesity and related metabolic alterations and the male sex. The female sex was connected with normosmia, higher adherence to the Mediterranean diet, and normal values of blood pressure, lipids, and glucose levels. These results highlight an inverse correlation between olfactory skills and BMI and show that a normosmic condition, probably because of greater adherence to the Mediterranean diet, seems to protect not only from an excessive increase in body weight but also from associated pathological conditions such as hypertension and metabolic syndrome.

Effect of the rs2821557 Polymorphism of the Human Kv1.3 Gene on Olfactory Function and BMI in Different Age Groups

“…It is known that there is a relationship between the eating habits of individuals and their olfactory function [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ], and recent studies in our laboratories have highlighted an inverse relationship between the sense of smell and the body weight of individuals [ 13 , 34 , 35 , 79 ]; therefore, we evaluated whether this inverse relationship is maintained regardless of the age group considered. The results we obtained show that overweight individuals achieved significantly lower TDI olfactory scores than their normal weight peers (i.e., belonging to the same age group).…”

“…The sense of smell is a rapid and important system for early signaling of the presence of environmental dangers, such as smoke, chemicals, natural gases and spoiled foods [ 1 ], and its decline can increase risk to the health and safety of individuals [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. An impairment in olfactory function can also impact the eating behavior and nutritional status of individuals [ 5 , 6 , 7 ]: people with smell disorders report having changed their eating habits by preferring more palatable and high-energy foods, such as fats and sugars, and spices and salt, compared to foods such as fruits and vegetables, with a consequent increase in body weight [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ].…”

Association among Olfactory Function, Lifestyle and BMI in Female and Male Elderly Subjects: A Cross-Sectional Study

“…The human perception of both complex and simple odors is characterized by a great variability between individuals, due to the effect of multiple factors such as physiological, genetic, and environmental ones [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. It is known that one of the main factors capable of negatively influencing the olfactory function is the natural aging process [12][13][14][15][16][17], in addition to chronic pathological conditions such as nasal, cardiovascular, metabolic, renal, hepatic, and immuno-inflammatory diseases, as well as neurodegenerative and mental diseases such as depression [18][19][20][21][22][23]. The olfactory function is closely linked to the quality of life of all individuals, from the young to the elderly.…”

Multiobjective Optimization of Fuzzy System for Cardiovascular Risk Classification

“…The use of artificial intelligence and optimization techniques has shown promising results in various healthcare applications [17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27], including the management of CVDs and related risk factors, offering a valuable tool for improving public health. For example, artificial neural networks (ANNs) have been used to elucidate the connections between olfaction, eating habits, and metabolic disturbances in the health of overweight patients [17].…”

“…The use of artificial intelligence and optimization techniques has shown promising results in various healthcare applications [17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27], including the management of CVDs and related risk factors, offering a valuable tool for improving public health. For example, artificial neural networks (ANNs) have been used to elucidate the connections between olfaction, eating habits, and metabolic disturbances in the health of overweight patients [17]. Another study examined the prevalence of hypertension and obesity and studied markers of inflammation and oxidative stress using bioelectrical signal processing [18], while neural network models have been developed to predict cardiac and cardiovascular health by processing bioelectrical signals [19].…”