Application of Biogas and Biomethane as Maritime Fuels: A Review of Research, Technology Development, Innovation Proposals, and Market Potentials

Abstract

This review paper examines the applicability of biogas and biomethane as potential maritime fuels and examines issues of these fuels from a supply chain perspective (from production to end use). The objectives are to identify: (1) the latest research, development, and innovation activities; (2) issues and key barriers related to the technology readiness to bring biogas/biomethane to market; and (3) commercialisation issues, including cost parity with natural gas (the main competitor). A survey of the literature was carried out based on research articles and grey literature. The PESTEL and SWOT analyses identified opportunities for these fuels due to the relevant regulations (e.g., Fit for 55; the recent inclusion of the Mediterranean Sea as a SECA and PM control area; MPEC 79), market-based measures, and environmental, social, and governance strategies. The potential of biomass feedstock is estimated to have a substantial value that can satisfy the energy needs of the maritime industry. However, production costs of biomethane are high; estimated to be 2–4 times higher compared to natural gas. The market is moving in the direction of alternative drop-in fuels, including liquefied and compressed biomethane (LBM and CBM) and biogas. In terms of potential market penetration, LBM can be used as a marine drop-in fuel for the existing fleet that already combust LNG and LPG due to similar handling. Currently, these vessels are LNG and LPG tankers. However, in newly built vessels, LBM can be also supplied to container ships, vehicle carriers, and bulk carriers (about 20% of newly built vessels). Provided that compressed natural gas infrastructure exists, CBM can be exploited in vessels with low energy needs and low space requirements and shore-side electrification, because investments in retrofits are lower compared to constructing new infrastructure.

Sustainable Vehicles for Decarbonizing the Transport Sector: A Comparison of Biofuel, Electric, Fuel Cell and Solar-Powered Vehicles

“…Tanwar et al reviewed the chemical and physical properties of bioalcohols and their blends with conventional diesel used in compression ignition vehicles [5]. Mallouppas et al reviewed the research and development, innovative proposals on the application of biogas and biomethane as maritime fuels, along with their market potential as fuels [6]. The recent review articles on battery electric vehicles majorly focused on the discussion of the design, reliability, and challenges with various battery thermal management strategies for electric vehicles [7][8][9][10].…”

Biogas Steam Reforming in Wastewater Treatment Plants: Opportunities and Challenges

“…On the other hand, even though the discipline profile was similar to methane steam reforming, a higher percentage of journals devoted to Energy (at the expense of the rest of the disciplines) was found, with 41% of total articles. This could be due to the fact that biogas could be considered a renewable energy and a possible alternative or replacement for natural gas, whose energy purposes and similarities have been widely explained in the literature [10,21,46].…”

A Life Cycle Assessment of Methane Slip in Biogas Upgrading Based on Permeable Membrane Technology with Variable Methane Concentration in Raw Biogas

“…An LCA of biomethane production can also help to determine the environmental benefits and potential trade-offs of biomethane compared to other energy systems. Several recent studies have conducted LCA of biomethane production from different organic waste substrates, such as bread waste, food waste and sewage sludge, and compared the performance of different biomethane production pathways, such as biogas upgrading to bioethanol and biomethane [14,[37][38][39][40], and even direct use of biogas and biomethane as a fuel [41]. These studies have considered the environmental benefits and trade-offs of biomethane production, such as reduced GHGs, improved waste management, and reduced dependence on fossil fuels, as well as the environmental impacts of biomethane production, such as energy use, nutrient losses, and emissions to air, water, and soil.…”