Application of the heuristic-systematic model to computer code trustworthiness: The influence of reputation and transparency

Abstract

Computer programs (code) are integral to the functions of current society. Yet, little is known about why programmers trust code they did not create. The current paper applied the heuristic-systematic model (HSM) of information processing to perceptions of code trust for reuse. The studies explored transparency (readability and organization) and reputation (source) as factors that influenced trust perceptions and time spent reviewing code using professional programmers. Source and readability manipulations led to higher trustworthiness assessments in the first study. Organization had nonlinear effects on trustworthiness. A three-way interaction including time was also found. The second online study largely replicated the first study's main and interaction effects for trustworthiness, but the main effects on time were not significant. Our findings suggest the relationships of transparency on trustworthiness are not as straightforward as previously thought. Additionally, the findings of the current study expand the HSM to trust in code.

Would You Fix This Code for Me? Effects of Repair Source and Commenting on Trust in Code Repair

“…The source of the repairs had a significant influence on all variables assessed in the current study. This is not surprising as previous research in both computer science and psychology [14,16,20] has demonstrated the source of the code (i.e., reputation) as an important factor that influences reuse and trust perceptions in code. The current study also supports the hypotheses of Madhavan and Weigmann [23] that humans hold biases in perceptions against automation when they perceive they can perform the task themselves, as participants consistently rated GenProg lower than a human.…”

“…Several experimental findings have highlighted the utility of the HSM in the context of trustworthiness of computer code. Alarcon and colleagues [16], for example, found that properties of code (e.g., readability and source of the code) served as cues programmers used to inform their trust toward the code. Specifically, when readability and perceived source were degraded, trust levels declined and human processing speed was shortened, despite that the code compiled successfully and was free from performance errors.…”

“…For example, Lyons et al [29] found trust in an automatic ground collision avoidance system in fighter jets increased when information about the functioning of the system was displayed on the screen. Similarly, Alarcon et al [16] found transparency was a key factor in whether programmers would reuse code that was generated by other programmers, and research has consistently demonstrated transparency as a key factor in perceptions of software [14,20]. However, the relationship of comments and trust in code remains equivocal.…”

“…The source of the code repair may influence perceptions of code trustworthiness. The reputation factor found by Alarcon et al [16] is defined as "perceived code trustworthiness cues based on external information [such as] the source of the code, information available in reviews, and the number of current users of the software" [20] (p. 112). In the automation literature, de Vries and Midden [31] found that a system's reputation affected participants' expectancies of the system.…”

“…We used four items to asses overall trustworthiness perceptions of the repairs (i.e., assessing perceived trustworthiness, maintainability, performance, and transparency perceptions). The items were chosen because they are the main constructs in the trust in code research that can be ascertained from the code itself [16]. Participants indicated their perceptions of trustworthiness with the item "How trustworthy do you find this repair?…”