Applications of Mycotoxin Biomarkers in Human Biomonitoring for Exposome-Health Studies: Past, Present, and Future

Abstract

This publication reviews the state-of-the-art human biological monitoring (HBM) of mycotoxin biomarkers in breast milk, plasma, serum, and whole blood samples with a focus on the past two decades (2000–2011 and 2011–2021). Three aspects have been analyzed and summarized: (a) the biomarkers detected and their levels found, (b) the analytical methodologies developed and employed, and (c) the exposome concept and the significance of omics tools. From the literature reviewed, aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in human breast milk, plasma and serum were the most widely studied mycotoxin biomarkers for HBM. Regarding analytical methodologies, a clear increase in the development and implementation of mass spectrometry methods for simultaneous determination of multiple mycotoxins was observed. For this purpose, use of liquid chromatography (LC) methodologies, especially when coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) or high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) has grown substantially and are now the methods of choice. A high percentage of the samples analyzed for various mycotoxins in the literature reviewed were found to contain biomarkers, demonstrating a combination of targeted sampling and high levels of human exposure to mycotoxins within the target populations. Also, most HBM investigations only examined exposure to one or a few mycotoxins at a given period. Human exposome studies undertake a wider evaluation of the exposure as part of epidemiological studies through the discovery of novel biomarkers that exist as potential indicators of environmental influences on human health. However, guidelines are required for analytical method validation, as well as algorithms to establish the relationship between the levels of biomarkers detected in human biofluids and mycotoxin intake.

The Potential of Multi-Screening Methods and Omics Technologies to Detect Both Regulated and Emerging Mycotoxins in Different Matrices

“…In particular, omics-based approaches are valuable tools for the analysis of clinical samples, such as biofluids. This high-throughput technique can provide a comprehensive overview of the pathophysiological state mediated by mycotoxin exposure, thus helping to discover and define the most relevant exposure biomarkers related to adverse implications [ 90 ].…”

“…High-resolution mass analyzers allow for an extremely high putative identification level by, for example, using QTOF and Fourier transformation-based instruments (e.g., Orbitrap and ion cyclotron resonance). According to the available scientific literature, the most commonly analyzed biofluids for targeted and untargeted metabolomics profiling related to mycotoxin exposure are blood, serum, plasma, urine, and milk [ 88 , 89 , 90 ]. In this regard, targeted metabolomics is usually used for detecting different ranges of contamination by mycotoxins in foods, feeds, and agricultural products [ 93 ] as well as for checking biomarkers of exposure [ 94 ].…”

“…In this regard, targeted metabolomics is usually used for detecting different ranges of contamination by mycotoxins in foods, feeds, and agricultural products [ 93 ] as well as for checking biomarkers of exposure [ 94 ]. As recently reported by Owolabi et al [ 90 ], untargeted metabolomics provides a robust and unbiased platform for mycotoxin research and a better evaluation of human and animal exposure, allowing for the identification of the best biomarkers to be monitored for guaranteeing food and feed safety.…”