Applying Multilevel Modeling to Understand Individual and Cross-Cultural Variations in Attitudes Toward Homosexual People Across 28 European Countries

Abstract

Individual and cross-cultural factors associated with attitudes toward homosexual people were examined in this study. Using cross-sectional data from the sixth biennial European Social Survey, which represents 36,959 individuals nested within 28 European countries, successive nested models were tested using multilevel modeling (MLM). Results found that attitudes varied cross-culturally as a function of people’s country of residence—this clustering effect was controlled for in all subsequent models. Individual-level predictors (Level 1) of male gender, older age, less education, being an immigrant to one’s residing country, conservative political affiliation, high religiosity, perceptions that politics in one’s country were unfair, low openness to change values, low self-transcendence values, high conservation values, and high self-enhancement values were significantly linked with anti-homosexuality attitudes. At the country level (Level 2), a high emphasis on social conservatism and fewer civil rights for homosexuals was connected with more unfavorable attitudes. Findings indicate main effects of predictors at both levels; however, country-level variables tended to yield stronger coefficients than individual-level factors, highlighting the contributions of macro- and microfactors in simultaneously shaping attitudes toward homosexuality. Beyond these effects, interactions of country- and individual-level variables show political affiliation, religiosity, self-enhancement values as stronger predictors in liberal countries, but openness to change values, younger age, and higher education as stronger predictors in conservative countries. Implications are discussed for understanding the wide continuum of views toward homosexuality across people and countries.

Two Sexes, Two Genders Only: Measuring Attitudes toward Transgender Individuals in Poland

“…Poland is a conservative country (Donaldson et al 2017) oriented toward traditional values (Inglehart and Baker 2000), with a high position for the Catholic Church (Golebiowska 2017) and with one of the most restrictive laws related to…”

“…Some researchers pointed out that although values and attitudes toward family and work are still changing after the political transformation in Poland, gender roles seem to still be strongly aligned with traditional features (Siemieńska 2008). This statement found confirmation in the study of Donaldson et al (2017), who showed that social conservatism in Poland, defined as an adherence to traditional ideology, obtained a score of 4 of 5 (where 5 denotes the highest level of this country-level variable). Similarly, a study by Treas and Tai (2016) showed that Poland, like other post-socialist countries, is characterized by low gender egalitarianism.…”

“…Similarly, a study by Treas and Tai (2016) showed that Poland, like other post-socialist countries, is characterized by low gender egalitarianism. Egalitarian values are related to higher openness for diversity and are associated with lower prejudice toward gender nonconformists (Donaldson et al 2017;Schwartz 2006). In less egalitarian cultures, the dichotomy between the sexes is regularly highlighted (Schwartz 2006), which causes people to try to avoid cross-sex behaviors (Żadkowska et al 2018).…”

“…The European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights survey (2013), which was conducted in 28 countries, revealed that 46% of the 6,771 transgender individuals surveyed felt discriminated against, and 28% were attacked or threatened with violence more than three times in the year preceding the survey. Although the survey showed important differences among countries, it is worth noting that even in the least conservative countries like Sweden or Finland (Donaldson et al 2017), almost 40% of participants admitted experiencing discrimination and harassment because of being an LGBT individual.…”

“…The level of transphobia in a specific country might be influenced by the cultural values that translate into more or less accepting attitudes toward individuals who cross gender boundaries. A great illustration of this idea was a study by Donaldson et al (2017), who showed how attitudes toward gay and lesbian individuals are shaped both by the individual and by predictors for the country of residence. On the one hand, male gender, older age, high religiosity, high conservative values, and low openness to change were positive predictors of homonegativity.…”