“…Stainless steel (SS) is extensively used in various applications involving direct contact with biological materials and fluids, owing to its outstanding durability and resistance to corrosion. − For example, stainless steel is widely employed in vascular stents, guide wires, , and orthopedic implants. , In addition, stainless steel is widely used to construct food processing equipment in food industries , and submerged structures in marine and aquatic environments. , However, stainless steel exhibits high susceptibility to fouling arising from adhesion and colonization by various microorganisms . Biofouling, the formation of biofilm on the stainless steel surface, is highly risky to biomedical and food industries, because it can result in device or implant contamination and alimentary toxicosis. , In marine and aquatic environments, biofouling is so severe that it has caused huge global economic loss, estimated to be at $30–50 billion annually. , …”