Are the Negative Mental Health Effects of Gender Discrimination (GD) Salient across Cultures? Does Self-Esteem Mediate These Effects: GD as a Continuous Traumatic Stress and the Pathways to Its Negative Dynamics?

Abstract

Traumatology perspective on gender discrimination GD, views it as type III identity continuous trauma that has continuous and stable negative mental health effects. Current work evaluated the salience of GD's negative effects across different cultures and outcome measures and tested the differential impact of GD within the household (GD-P), and GD within social institutions (GD-S). Data from four previous studies on American Indians, Palestinians, and clients of mental health clinics in Egypt and torture survivors in the US were re-analyzed. All the four studies used the same measure of GD, and trauma types, with similar and different outcome measures which allowed measuring the stability of the effects across different cultures and different outcome measures. Partial correlation and path analysis were conducted. GD predicted increased PTSD, cumulative trauma disorders, general anxiety, annihilation anxiety, and decreased in self-esteem, general assessed functioning. Results suggested that linear and non-linear effects of GD supported its cumulative dynamics. GD-S was associated with more negative outcomes than GD-P. Further, internalizing and appraising GD as positive mediated by resulted decrease in self-esteem, predicted negative mental health outcomes, while negative appraisal did not predict any negative change. Positive appraisal of GD may be a negative coping strategy. The implications of results for trauma I. A. Kira et al. 94 theory, counseling and social justice, and for future research were discussed.

Is Complicated Birth One of the Early Childhood Traumas? A Framework for Birthing Trauma, Its Impacts, and Proliferation

“…BT framework fits well within the developmentally-based trauma framework (DBTF) (e.g., Kira, 2001Kira, , 2004Kira, , 2010Kira et al, 2008, Kira, Fawzi, & Fawzi, 2013, Kira, Ashby, Lewandowski et al, 2013Kira, Alawneh, Aboumediene, Lewandowski, & Laddis, 2014;Kira, Lewandowski, Chiodo, & Ibrahim, 2014;Kira, Omidy, & Ashby, 2014;Kira, Omidy, Fawzi et al, 2015). BT is one of the early developmental traumas that precedes and may have the comparable impact of early attachment trauma, e.g., attachment disruptions and abandonment by primary caregivers (e.g., Bowlby, 1988) for 0 -3 years of age.…”

The association of relational and organizational job stress factors with sleep disorder: analysis of the 3rd Korean working conditions survey (2011)

“…Because there are reportedly gender differences in stress exposure and risk [19, 20], we analyzed the interactions between gender and each job stress factor. Discrimination experience was significantly correlated with gender (and the effect of discrimination on sleep disorders was larger among women than men, as seen in Fig.…”

Gender Discrimination (GD): A Conceptual Trauma-Based Framework for GD and the Development of Gender Discrimination Inventory

“…The concept of identity traumas has been proposed in earlier work as part of development-based trauma framework (DBTF) (e.g., Kira, 2001;Kira et al, 2008;Kira, Omidy, Fawzi et al, 2015). This framework termed such discriminations as "type III" trauma that is ongoing traumas which start with person's emerging identities early in life without a foreseeable end, and that has a potential of proliferation to other traumas and of developing cumulative and continued effects.…”