Are there associations between religious affiliation and drive for muscularity? A cross-sectional survey of young Muslim women, Christian women and atheist women from Germany

Abstract

Background Over the last 20 years, society’s perception of the ideal female body size in Western cultures has changed from thin to athletic, and many women practice sports to achieve well-toned bodies. However, to date, no study has investigated whether Muslim women who live in a Western country and veil their bodies strive for lean or muscular bodies too. The current cross-sectional survey therefore addressed this question. Methods Veiled Muslim women (n = 70), unveiled Muslim women (n = 50), Christian women (n = 79), and atheist women (n = 68) living in Germany answered several questionnaires assessing engagement in sports, body appreciation, and drive for leanness and muscularity. Univariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to compare the four groups. Results The results of univariate and multivariate analyses showed that Muslim women engaged less in sports and veiled Muslim women reported higher body appreciation than did Christian and atheist women. Although the groups did not differ significantly in drive for muscularity, Muslim women showed lower levels of drive for leanness than did Christian and atheist women. Conclusion Given that Muslim women engaged less in sports and strived less for a lean body compared to Christian and atheist women, a well-toned body might be less important for them. Nevertheless, as being active is beneficial for general health, barriers that prevent Muslim women from engaging in sports should be diminished.

Associations between orthorexia, disordered eating, and obsessive–compulsive symptoms: A systematic review and meta‐analysis

“…It is possible that this phenomenon could reflect Western countries to a greater extent than Eastern countries, although, to date, no evidence is available on its spread and its related aspects. In this regard, Western beauty ideals of thinness are increasingly complemented with having a muscular and healthy body (Varnes et al, 2013; Wilhelm, Hartmann, Becker, Waldorf, & Vocks, 2020). Previous research on Western cultures indicated that people with ON tendencies may also present a fixation on exhibiting an athletic ideal body image, through investment in fitness (Pauzé et al, 2021).…”

Factor structure of the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire (EDE-Q) in adult men with eating disorders

“…Thus, one might therefore reasonably argue that the independent emergence of “Body Dissatisfaction”, “Weight Concern”, and (likely thinness-related) “Importance” might mirror the fact that a “thinness ideal” is too limiting to capture ED-related psychopathology in men, and that a sizeable group of men in our sample may have been dissatisfied with their body, not due to the fear of weight gain or the self-concept centrality of thinness, but for example due to dissatisfaction with their body mass and musculature [ 27 ]. Of course, many women may be similarly dissatisfied with their body mass and musculature [ 31 , 32 ], highlighting the general need to consider a broad range of body image phenotypes in ED psychopathology assessments. Whether or not the distinction between Body Dissatisfaction, Weight Concern, and Importance can be maintained while including muscularity-focused items is to be examined in future investigations; for the time being, the suggested distinction may provide a useful heuristic for exploring additional men-related body image concerns in clinical samples.…”

“…While the EDE-Q shows high levels of convergent validity, the validity of its factor structure remains an issue of ongoing discussion [ 28 – 30 ]. The original four-factor structure appears particularly problematic for men [ 23 ], for whom the concept of body image appears to be relevant, but a focus on the underlined “thinness ideal” is too limiting and may underestimate the role of concerns about musculature [ 27 ] -which, as we must note, are also increasingly relevant among women [ 31 , 32 ]. These and similar findings question the validity of using the EDE-Q subscales for measuring ED pathology in men.…”

Beliefs, practices, or culture? A mixed-method study of religion and body esteem.

“…Religious practices that are related to taking care of and respecting the body may help religious individuals experience better body esteem. For example, Muslim women who adhere to wearing the hijab may experience greater body appreciation (Wilhelm et al, 2020) and less negative body esteem (Pahlevan Sharif et al, 2019; Sidi et al, 2020; Swami et al, 2014), perhaps as head coverings act as an important component of religious identity (Loewenthal & Solaim, 2016). In addition, when exposed to depictions of the thin-ideal in media, veiled Muslim women, compared to Christian and atheist women, showed more positive body esteem.…”