Are there biomedical criteria to assess an acute carbon dioxide intoxication by a volcanic emission?

Lessons Learned from Natural and Industrial Analogues for Storage of Carbon Dioxide in Deep Geological Formations

“…These mists are locally known to kill children and animals periodically (Le Guern et al, 1982;Allard et al, 1989;Stupfel and Le Guern, 1989;Baubron et al, 1990;Simkin and Siebert, 1994;Baxter et al, 1999;USGS, 2000a. Table 3.2 summarizes the major recorded consequences and fatalities from volcanic disasters ascribed to CO 2 .…”

“…The cloud dispersed once it entered the broad open valley beyond the towns of Subum and To. The last people killed walked into low-lying or confined areas where CO 2 had collected and not yet dissipated (Baxter and Kapila, 1989;Sigvaldason, 1989, 1990;Stupfel and Le Guern, 1989;Faivre-Pierret et al, 1992;Freeth, 1992;Le Guern et al, 1992;Evans et al, 1994;Holloway, 2000).…”

“…Vegetation around soda springs shows no adverse effects, though some physiological adaptation to higher levels of CO 2 is likely. When CO 2 comes from magmatic sources, altered carbon isotopic composition in local vegetation is possible, most notably depleted 14 C (Stupfel and Le Guern, 1989;Brown, 1995Hietter, 1995;Barbier, 1997;Reid et al, 1998;Pasquier-Cardin et al, 1999;NOAA, 2001b;Soak.net, 2001). …”

Gaet’ale- a reactivated thermal spring and potential tourist hazard in the Asale salt flats, Danakil Depression, Ethiopia

“…It must be borne in mind that CO 2 is colourless and has no smell, and its presence is not easily detected.-Because it is heavier than air, it tends to accumulate in hollows and depressions in volcanic areas (Allard et al 1989;Stupfel and Le Guern 1989;Baxter et al , 1990Baxter et al , 1999Baxter 2010). The effects of increasing CO 2 concentrations in the air range from a shortage of breath, to dizziness, loss of consciousness and death (Ikeda et al 1989;Hathaway et al 2004;Hansell andOppenheimer 2004;Hansell et al 2006;Cantrell and Young 2009) (Table 1).…”

“…Periodic testing of the air by checking whether a flame burns (e.g., Stupfel and Le Guern 1989), may be an easy way of detecting the presence of excess CO 2 near the Gaet'ale springs. However, this must be done in an environmentally sensitive way (e.g., use must be made of cigarette lighters, rather than matches, which tend to be thrown away, and will end up accumulating as rubbish around an extremely fragile site, where nothing decays).…”